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The incompatibility of 3D concrete printing (3DCP) with conventional reinforcement methods is well known. Recently, solutions have suggested the insertion of helical reinforcement rods through a screwing motion into the freshly printed material. The current study focuses on the bond properties of such reinforcement and its relation to placement time relative to the 3D printed concrete age, of which until now hardly any data exists. Confined pull-out tests and micro-computed tomography (μCT) scans were performed to characterize the time-dependent bond properties for automatically placed screw-type reinforcement in 3D printed concrete in the range of 0–200 min after material deposition. An experimental program was carried out using a gantry type 3D concrete printer and a robotic hand with the Automated Screwing Device to automate the reinforcement placement process. In total 200 specimens were produced and tested in pull-out. μCT scans were done on the specimens to quantify air content in the vicinity of the reinforcement, for every other time stamp. Two different screw geometries were used. A high mechanical interlock was achieved resulting in a high bond strength in confined pull-out tests. It was concluded from the confined pull-out tests that the pull-out performance is not influenced significantly by the time of application after mortar deposition in a time frame of up to 200 min. This firmly positions automatically applied helical reinforcement as a viable method to reinforce 3DCP structures.

Low productivity, material depletion, waste, and emissions are widespread in the construction industry. On top of this, many bridges reaching the end of their service life need repair or replacement. This design project investigates how digitisation and integrated design and manufacturing processes can aid in addressing sustainability and productivity issues. This project develops a digital workflow for bridge design and manufacturing using 3D printed concrete in combination with circular economy design concepts of disassembly and material reduction. Design Criteria For the development of the project, design criteria were established. This process initially looked at two previously printed bridges in the Netherlands. From this, design criteria for both the design tool and the resulting bridge designs were established. These criteria include: • Use concrete 3D printing and work with relevant printing systems. • Use structural analysis to guide user decisions. • Use prestressed tendons and modularise for simple assembly and disassembly. • Implement principles of the circular economy. Design Tool The project developed a parametric design tool for creating bridges using 3D-printed concrete. Five ‘blocks’ manage distinct design elements in the design tool. 1. Alignment allows the user to match the bridge to an existing location or shape a new bridge through length, span and shape. 2. Cross-sections along the curve allow the user to shape the bridge. Size and thickness control linked to a structural check enables efficient material distribution. 3. 3D Form interpolates the cross-sections into a 3D shape. Here the user can see how the beam will look. 4. Segments are created in the beam to engage with material, manufacturing and transport constraints. 5. Code Generation block generates code suitable for standard printing systems. The user can make changes and modifications at any stage in the process. The manufacturing constraints are embedded into the design process, helping to ensure that what is designed can be produced. Design Concepts Two bridge concepts were created to demonstrate the tool’s flexibility in different scenarios. One design uses a freeform cross-section type to create a pedestrian bridge over a river. The other is a more straightforward highway bridge using a modular cross-section type and reuses existing supports. Public Dissemination One of the ambitions is to share results and knowledge generated throughout the project. This knowledge dissemination is demonstrated by three public presentations reaching an industry, academic and general public audience. Conclusions and Recommendations The tool created helps demonstrate how integrated approaches to design and fabrication can help with the challenges presented in sustainability and productivity but simultaneously with the ambition that what we produce is attractive and appropriate to its location.

In the absence of a formwork, printable materials are expected to quickly increase their consistency in order to resist the self-weight of the structure being printed. Resolving this rheological requirement with the printing process is the key to successful printing. It is therefore necessary, from a material design, from a process design and from a daily quality control point of view, to have the ability to measure the relevant fresh properties. Because of the range of stresses of interest, there only exist a few standard tests in literature allowing for such an assessment while some new ones were developed in the last decade. The present paper aims at presenting some of these tests along with some preliminary data supporting their ability to capture the material properties of interest while discussing the remaining and related open research questions.

This article focuses on the specifics in characterizing the properties of additively manufactured, cement-based materials in their hardening and hardened states. Such characterization is required for the material development, structural design, and quality control of both printable material and 3D-printed elements. The related challenges are associated with the printed material's layered structure, which results in higher degrees of anisotropy and inhomogeneity in comparison to conventionally cast concrete. Thus, in the production of test specimens, the particularities of the real-scale 3D-printing process must be considered. Here a distinction is made between the production of samples for material testing prior to or parallel to actual application and those extracted from full-scale elements. Specifics of destructive testing are analyzed with emphasis on mechanical characteristics, while the discussion of non-destructive testing mainly addresses the geometry of the deposited layers and printed elements, measuring deformations, and finding such defects as voids and gaps. Finally, approachesrequired for developing/adapting guidelines and standards for testing of 3D-printed, cement-based materials are discussed.

Extrusion-based 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) is rapidly gaining popularity in the construction industry. Trial projects are now being realized at an increasing rate around the world to test the viability of the technology against real-world requirements. This step, from the ‘simple’ deposition of filaments of self-stable concrete to its application in buildings and structures, with all associated requirements and interfaces, comes with challenges. These range from matching the design intent to the manufacturing capabilities (through structural analysis and approval, and reinforcement) to quality consistency (robustness) on large scale, and compatibility with other materials. In many of these areas, much simply remains unknown due to a lack of experimental data or information from projects where 3DCP has been applied. This paper aims at reducing this knowledge gap by presenting a systematic discussion, based on the analyses of eight realized 3DCP projects from around the world. It was found that the structural application of printed concrete is limited, due to a lack of regulatory framework for expedient approval, as well as limited reinforcement options which require to resort to unreinforced masonry analogies. The application of the technology features a host of practical issues that relate to the print process, material, site conditions, building integration and design – or to the 3DCP technology in general. Although some potential risks, such as shrinkage cracking and quality consistency are generally recognized, the measures taken to mitigate them vary considerably, and are largely based on individual expertise. The actual effectiveness is generally unknown. Finally, it was observed that, while the printing itself is fast, the preparation time is generally considerable. This is partially due to a lack of knowledge amongst professionals. In the practical production of a 3DCP project, three expertise areas are crucial: one for the digital part, one for the machine side, and one for the material side. Thus there is a strong need for educational institutions to develop dedicated training courses and incorporate relevant topics into their curricula.

The rapid development of additive manufacturing of cementitious materials has enabled the emergence of a new design paradigm, namely functional grading of material properties by location. Target performance parameters could be material weight and insulation value or (particularly important) ductility. A generic concept to achieve this, is through the selective addition of fibres or aggregates. In 3D concrete printing (3DCP), this concept can be developed into two strategies: by adding particles (i) to the bulk mixture through a second stage mixing process at the printer head (Simultaneous Process, SP), or (ii) in between the layers of deposited cementitious filament (Repetitive Sequential Process, RSP). The present paper presents the development of specific equipment required to obtain on–demand functional grading of the printed material. Subsequently, the application of these systems in print trials is shown. The current study focussed on ductility by creating fibre–reinforced 3D printed concrete through both strategies. The mechanical performance of the obtained material has been established through compressive, flexural, and crack–mouth opening displacement tests. To underline the generic nature of the strategies, a trial with lightweight aggregates has also been performed. It was shown that particularly the SP is capable of achieving improvements in ductility and self–weight.

Since the advent of three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP), several studies have shown the potential of strain hardening cementitious composites (SHCC) as a self-reinforcing printable mortar. However, only a few papers focus on achieving sufficient buildability when developing printable SHCC. This study investigates the role of the particle size distribution (PSD) in relation to the buildability properties of the mixture in the fresh state and strain hardening properties in the hardened state. To this end 6 mixtures were designed based on optimal particle packing with the application of the Modified Andreasen and Andersen Model. The two mix designs showed the highest displacement at maximum stress were selected for further development of their fresh state rheological properties. This was achieved by addition of a viscosity modifying agent (VMA) and a super plasticizer (SP) and through material analysis by means of ram extrusion tests. Further fresh material characterization on the final two 3DP-SHCC mix designs was attained by the deployment of uniaxial unconfined compression tests (UUCT), Vicat tests and Buildability tests. After successful printing of the two SHCC composites, the compressive strength, the 4-point bending strength and the uniaxial tensile strength and strain were determined at an age of 28 days. The research shows that optimization of the PSD in a 3DP-SHCC mix design results in an improvement of the buildability, but can introduce decreased pumpability and strain hardening capacity.

Control of filament geometry in extrusion based additive manufacturing is essential to guarantee the desired quality of the printing process and the final product. Depending on the selected process parameters, material strategy and geometrical features, the printing process can however be susceptible to filament tearing or filament buckling. In this work, 2D and 3D CFD simulations have been used to map the influence of all these parameters in the infinite brick regime of 3D concrete printing processes. Analytical derivations of a tearing factor and buckling factor are presented. The use of these analytical tools is then illustrated, by studying variations in the printing process, such as changes in velocities, nozzle height, or material properties. Finally, the risk of both filament tearing and buckling of a single filament when printing sharp turns is discussed.

Both industry and academia are rapidly developing processes, materials, and projects to explore the potential of extrusion-layering additive manufacturing of cementitious materials, generally known as 3D concrete printing (3DCP). Because the lack of supportive formwork makes objects prone to failure during printing, a key aspect remains the so-called ‘buildability’, a qualitative descriptor to indicate the resistance against such failures. Obviously, the material characteristics of the applied print mortar are an important (although not sole) parameter to determine buildability. However, it is not yet clear which material properties are the most suitable, and how they should be determined experimentally. In literature, a range of approaches has been suggested, but comparative studies are very few in number and limited in scope. This paper presents a juxtaposition of fresh material characterisation methods by subjecting four different mortars to a range of tests related to buildability, including rotational rheometry, unconfined uniaxial compression tests, direct shear tests, and ultrasonic wave transmission tests. For reference, some hardened state properties were also determined, and a printing trial was performed on one mixture. Significant differences between the mixtures were found, including different development characteristics, even though three of the four mixtures were composed of different proportions of the same 4 dry materials. Furthermore, it was shown that strength values from different experiments could only be correlated by assuming significant friction angles associated with Mohr-Coulomb failure behaviour. We propose this could be established relatively easily through a novel method, by combining rheometry-shear and uniaxial compression test results. The data seem to indicate this would be a valid approach. Normalized but physically different parameters, such as compressive strength and pulse velocity, could not be consistently correlated. Their proportions are time and mixture-dependent, which adds significant complexity to quality control and the development of generalized methods to characterize and compare buildability of cementitious mortars.

The technology of 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) has progressed rapidly over the last years. With the aim to realize both buildings and civil works, the need for reliable mechanical properties of printed concrete grows. As a consequence of the additive manufacturing technique, 3D printed structures may consist of several layers that should exhibit bond to guarantee a safe structural design. This paper presents the results of an experimental study on the relation between the 3DCP process parameters and the bond strength of 3D printed concrete. The effect of 3 process parameters (interlayer interval time, nozzle height, and surface dehydration) on two mechanical properties (compressive strength and tensile strength, determined through flexural and splitting tests), has been established, in three perpendicular directions. A very limited influence of layer orientation was found for the given process-material combination, given a sufficiently short interlayer interval time. However, the bond strength between the layers reduced for increasing interlayer interval times. This was also reflected by the failure mode of the samples. The reduction in strength became more pronounced for the samples that were left uncovered during the interval time, exposed to drying. No clear relation was found between the height of the nozzle, and the bond strength between layers. The results of this study, in comparison to various other works on 3DCP, emphasize the need for standardization of test methods and characterization of 3D printed concrete, as individual process parameters clearly must be considered in relation to the applied material and other process parameters.

With the number of 3D printed concrete structures rapidly increasing, the demand for concepts that allow for robust and ductile printed objects becomes increasingly pressing. An obvious solution strategy is the inclusion of fibers in the printed material. In this study, the effect of adding short straight steel fibers on the failure behaviour of Weber 3D 115-1 print mortar has been studied through several CMOD tests on cast and printed concrete, on different scales. The experiments have also been simulated numerically. The research has shown that the fibers cause an important increase in flexural strength, and eliminate the strength difference between cast and printed concrete that exists without fibers. The post-peak behaviour, nevertheless, has to be characterised as strongly strain-softening. In the printed specimens, a strong fiber orientation in the direction of the filament occurs. However, this has no notable effect on the performance in the tested direction: cast and printed concrete with fibers behave similarly in the CMOD test. For the key parameters, no scale effect was found for the specimens with fibers, contrary to the ones without. Numerical modelling of the test by using the Concrete Damage Plasticity material model of Abaqus, with a Thorenfeldt-based constitutive law in compression and a customised constitutive law in tension, results in a reasonable fit with the experimental results.

Building Information Modelling (BIM) paved the way to better information management in the construction sector, simplifying and encouraging the advent of digital technologies and tools. The application of large-scale additive manufacturing (AM) is growing and therefore subject to intensive research – on account of its disruptive potential to revolutionise the Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry.With this systematic literature review, the authors aim to identify the major advances made so far on AM's applicability to the construction sector, with particular attention being given to the thermal efficiency of 3D printed buildings.The article begins by presenting the review methodology applied and offering an outline of the current situation in the construction industry, followed by a discussion on different AM processes. Applications in the construction industry are presented and the development of extrudable materials is addressed. The influence of the thermal insulation of the building's envelope on its energy consumption is explained and experimental applications presented.The state-of-the-art shows that 3D printing (3DP) is still in an early stage and the research remains focused on the printability and structural capacity. There is a noticeable gap on physical aspects such as thermal and acoustic behaviour, which are of major importance to the indoor environment quality. By discussing the difference in performance between commercial thermal insulation materials and the existing 3D printed materials, this research outlines new ways of improving the thermal performance of 3D printed structures, by using additives in the printed mix or by acting on the wall's structure.

This article offers a comprehensive, systematic overview of the existing solutions for integrating reinforcement in digital concrete technologies with particular emphasis on Additive Manufacturing (AM) with concrete, also called 3D concrete printing (3DCP). While the functionalities of various types of reinforcement are briefly addressed, the major focus is on the integration process as such, i.e., on its technological aspects. On this basis a generic classification and process description outline has been developed for reinforcement integration, which is regarded as an extension of the RILEM process classification framework for Digital Fabrication with Concrete (DFC). In many instances, the integration occurs in a separate process step prior to or after concrete shaping. This holds true for all formative digital concrete shaping processes and for many 3DCP solutions. 3DCP approaches enable, however, integration of the reinforcement during concrete shaping as part of a single-step AM process in a simultaneous or contiguous manner, while placement of reinforcement is considered to be a sub-process.

This contribution studies failure by elastic buckling and plastic collapse during 3D concrete printing of wall structures. Four types of experiments were performed, which demonstrate the circumstances under which elastic buckling and plastic collapse occur, the effect of geometrical imperfections on the buckling response, the influence by the curing rate of the concrete material on the buckling stability, and the conditions leading to the successful printing of a complex, practical structure (a picnic table). The experimental results are compared to those computed by the parametric 3D printing model recently developed by Suiker (Int. J. Mech Sci, 137: 145–170, 2018), showing a very good agreement. The design formulas and design graphs deduced from the parametric model serve as a useful tool for accurately designing wall structures against failure during 3D concrete printing. Furthermore, they may be applied to optimize the process conditions during 3D printing, by providing the maximal printing velocity, the optimal geometrical characteristics, or the minimal amount of material required for adequately printing the structure.

Digital Fabrication with Concrete (DFC) encompasses 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) and many other methods of production. DFC is emerging from an era of invention and demonstration to one where the merits of one principle over another needs to be quantified systematically. DFC technologies vary in characteristics, complexity and maturity which hampers the synthesis of research and comparisons of performance. The interdependence of design geometry, material properties and process characteristics is well recognised. Materials research has made significant progress in recent years and there have been many applications with varying design geometries demonstrated. Far less has been done to guide the definition and description of the processes used. This work takes a step forward by presenting classification and process description guidance for DFC. The approach was developed by engaging a broad cross-section of the international community through the activities of the RILEM Technical Committee 276 between 2016 and 2020., Cement and Concrete Research, 134, ISSN:0008-8846

During the summer semester 2018–2019, a 3D concrete printed (3DCP) pavilion consisting of 47 unique free form parts was realized in the central square of the engineering campus of the University of Innsbruck. In a period of just 11 weeks, it was designed, engineered, manufactured, and assembled on-site to provide an attractive meeting space for students and staff alike. The parts were printed off-site in an extrusion layering process, using variable print speeds and filament heights to obtain radially fitting segments that were transported to the building site. A selection of parts was reinforced with innovative woven carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) strands, while the others were reinforced with in-laid conventional reinforcement bars. The parts were bolted to an on-site cast fibre-reinforced concrete floor and the seams were sealed with a silicone adhesive. This paper presents the entire project, including architectural considerations, geometrical parametric modelling, structural (safety) principles and design, manufacturing, and construction, including connections.

Additive manufacturing (AM) or 3D printing is a rapid prototyping process that has captured the attention of architects and designers worldwide in the last few years. Multiple research groups and commercial entities are exploring different areas of 3D concrete printing (3DCP) with one of the main topics being the potential to improve the design freedom, while simultaneously achieving sufficient structural ductility. Based on the target design impression of a free form 3DCP structure, this study presents a number of 3DCP strategies to print arbitrary double-curved geometries with improved concrete ductility. A digital design-to-fabrication workflow was applied, consisting of defining parameters at various stages of the process. Two case study objects have been printed, both featuring double-curved surfaces achieved through cantilevered printing with support material, and by printing on a curved support surface, respectively. The former object acted as support for the latter. Entrained cables and secondarily added glass fibres were used to obtain ductility. The result is a double-curved 1 \(\times \) 1 m panel with fibre-reinforced printed concrete, as well as a double curved print bed, reinforced with high strength steel cables.

The use of high strength steel cables directly entrained into printed concrete during the printing process, has previously been introduced as a method to provide reinforcement to objects being manufactured through a layer-extrusion based 3D concrete printing process. The bond between the cable and the cementitious mortar is a crucial parameter for the structural performance of such reinforcement, and was hence subject of a detailed study presented in this paper. The bond performance was studied in direct and flexural pull-out tests on cast and printed specimens and further analyzed by microscopic analysis of the bond surface. Two effects were identified that significantly decrease the bond strength. Firstly, chemical reactions create a spongy interface of poor strength. Secondly, the flow of mortar around the cable tends to create a cavity underneath the cable which reduces the effective bond surface. Mortar viscosity, nozzle design and filament pressure, were thus identified as important parameters for the bond quality. The average bond quality seems to reduce with embedment length. As a consequence, cable breakage was not achieved, in spite of considerable embedment lengths that were tested. Likely, this was caused by the cumulative probability of critical defects along the increasing embedment length, in combination with a non-constant shear distribution. All test series showed significant scatter. It was concluded that, although this reinforcement method is promising as it can potentially provide sufficient post-cracking strength, the bond quality must be improved considerably both in terms of average strength and reduction of scatter.

Over the past few years, several studies have shown the potential of three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) for applications in building and civil engineering. However, only a few studies have compared the properties of the fresh printing material and the quality of the printed elements from different printing facilities. Variations in the manufacturing conditions caused by the mixing procedures, the pumping device and the nozzle shape and/or dimensions may influence the quality of the printed elements. This study investigates the differences in the fresh and hardened properties of a printing material tested in two different printing facilities. The pump pressure and temperature experienced by the printing material during the printing session are monitored real-time. Hardened properties are measured for the printed elements, such as the bending capacity, the apparent density, and the air void content. The research shows that two different printing facilities may result in printed elements with relative differences in flexural strength and volumetric density of 49% and 7%, respectively.

This article offers a comprehensive overview of the underlying physics relevant to an understanding of materials processing during the various production steps in extrusion-based 3D concrete printing (3DCP). Understanding the physics governing the processes is an important step towards the purposeful design and optimization of 3DCP systems as well as their efficient and robust process control. For some processes, analytical formulas based on the relevant physics have already enabled reasonable predictions with respect to material flow behavior and buildability, especially in the case of relatively simple geometries. The existing research in the field was systematically compiled by the authors in the framework of the activities of the RILEM Technical Committee 276 “Digital fabrication with cement-based materials”. However, further research is needed to develop reliable tools for the quantitative analysis of the entire process chain. To achieve this, experimental efforts for the characterization of material properties need to go hand in hand with comprehensive numerical simulation.

The scope of this one-year research, carried out within a graduation studio consisting of 16 students, was to explore how this novel technique can lead to the development of new architectural forms. The graduation-studio called ‘De Centrale Gent, with 3D Concrete Printing’ explored the technique of 3DCP within the historical city of Ghent and through researching, designing and testing by printing. Fase 1: We investigated what the application of this technique could mean for architecture itself, taking the historical facades of the city of Ghent as an inspiration for the development of new printing techniques in 3DCP. We focused on developing a design-‘instrumentarium’ that is specific for the concrete printing technique, as well as on techniques that could push the boundaries of the so far known possibilities in shape, materiality’s, and ornamentation with Concrete Printing in relation to architecture. The research aimed to discover new aesthetic and sustainable qualities in 3D-printed manufacturing, through 5 main topics: light, joints, and patterns, supporting material, and assembling. The research was developed at the Eindhoven University of Technology and the prints were made with the 3DCP in the laboratory of the faculty of the Built Environment. Fase 2: Printing prototypes: A selection of results and findings of the one-year research in the graduation studio have been elaborated and collated into a new final product and summary design for three columns, featuring new aesthetic possibilities in 3DCP.

While interest in 3D printing of concrete (3DCP) and structures has been growing, a major obstacle for implementation of 3DP construction method is the need for steel reinforcement and the challenges this presents to the 3DP process. Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC), also known as Strain-hardening Cement-based Composites (SHCC), hold promise to attain structural integrity, durability, reliability and robustness without steel reinforcement. This article surveys the state of the art on 3DP research with ECC and suggests needed research to direct future development. Research in Asia, Europe and the United States has demonstrated printability and buildability of 3DP-ECC that exhibits characteristic tensile ductility of cast ECC. Nonetheless, a number of outstanding research areas are identified, including those associated with more sustainable mix-design, rheology control, microstructure, filament/filament interface weakness, and long-term durability. Resolution of these challenges will better position the research community to addressing full scale construction, print speed, and print quality.

Extrusion based additive manufacturing of cementitious materials has demonstrated strong potential to become widely used in the construction industry. However, the use of this technique in practice is conditioned by a feasible solution to implement reinforcement in such automated process. One of the most successful ductile materials in civil engineering, strain hardening cementitious composites (SHCC) have a high potential to be employed for three-dimensional printing. The match between the tailored brittle matrix and ductility of the fibres enables these composites to develop multiple cracks when loaded under tension. Using previously developed mixtures, this study investigates the physical and mechanical performance of printed SHCC. The anisotropic behavior of the materials is explored by means of mechanical tests in several directions and micro computed tomography tests. The results demonstrated a composite showing strain hardening behavior in two directions explained by the fibre orientation found in the printed elements. Moreover, the printing technique used also has guaranteed an enhanced bond in between the printed layers.

3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) is being used for off-site manufacture of many elements found in the built environment, ranging from furniture to bridges. The advantage of these methods is the value added through greater geometrical freedom because a mould is not needed to create the form. In recent years, research has focused on material properties both in the wet and hardened state, while less attention has been paid to verifying printed forms through geometry measurement. Checking conformity is a critical aspect of manufacturing quality control, particularly when assembling many components, or when integrating/interfacing parts into/with existing construction. This paper takes a case study approach to explore applications of digital measurement systems prior to, during, after manufacture using 3DCP and after the assembly of a set of 3DCP parts and discusses the future prospects for such technology as part of geometry quality control for the procurement of 3DCP elements for the built environment.

Recent years have seen a rapid growth of additive manufacturing methods for concrete construction. Potential advantages include reduced material use and cost, reduced labor, mass customization and CO2 footprint reduction. None of these methods, however, has yet been able to produce additively manufactured concrete with material properties suitable for structural applications, i.e. ductility and (flexural) tensile strength. In order to make additive manufacturing viable as a production method for structural concrete, a quality leap had to be made. In the project ‘3D Concrete Printing for Structural Applications’, 3 concepts have been explored to achieve the required structural performance: applying steel fiber reinforcement to an existing printable concrete mortar, developing a strain-hardening cementitious composite based on PVA fibers, and embedding high strength steel cable as reinforcement in the concrete filament. Whereas the former produced only an increase in flexural tensile strength, but limited post-peak resistance, the latter two provided promising strain hardening behavior, thus opening the road to a wide range of structural applications of 3D printed concrete., SPOOL, Vol. 6 No. 2: Energy Innovation #5

3D printing of concrete and related digital fabrication techniques are enjoying rapid growth. For these technologies to be broadly accepted in structural applications and to be economically competitive, quality control methods of the process will be required. Additive concrete manufacturing processes are sensitive to process settings and conditions, which calls not only for preprint structural modelling to establish printability, but also for in-print monitoring to ensure expected properties are indeed achieved. Non-destructive test methods are highly suitable for this aspect of quality control, as they usually allow efficient, high frequent digital measurements that require relatively little effort. However, as they generally do not directly measure the appropriate parameter(s), correlations between non-destructive and destructive testing have to be established. The preprint structural modelling is based on a number of time-dependent mechanical properties, including the compressive strength and the Young’s modulus. If concrete is still in the dormant state, as it often is in 3D concrete printing, these properties require difficult, time consuming destructive tests to establish. In the present work, the correlation between these two mechanical properties on the one hand, and the pulse velocity on the other, was studied. A (destructive) unconfined uniaxial compression test was applied to determine the former, while a (non-destructive) ultrasonic wave transmission test was used for the latter. As expected from previous research on a similar mortar, both the compressive strength and the Young’s modulus were found to increase linearly in a time frame of 5–90 min after extrusion. This is attributed to thixotropic build-up. Within that time frame, the pulse velocity also grew in a linear fashion. Thus, a simple linear correlation between the destructive and non-destructive test results could be established. For now, this allows continuous quality control on simply obtainable control batches. Furthermore, it stimulates the development of ultrasonic online monitoring methods for the objects during printing.

The magnetic orientation of steel fibres in transparent silicone oil and in fresh, self-compacting concrete (SCC) beams is studied experimentally. The effect of the generated fibre locations and orientations on the failure response of the SCC beams is determined by means of three-point bend tests. A relatively small coil was designed for the magnetic orientation of single and multiple fibres in the transparent silicone oil. The time required for orienting a single fibre was measured for a range of magnetic fluxes, which showed to strongly decrease with increasing magnetic field strength. The presence of gravel on the fibre orientation behaviour was considered in order to mimic the influence by a concrete aggregate, indicating that the gravel does not prevent rotations and chain formations of fibres. A larger coil was developed for the magnetic orientation of fibres in freshly casted SCC beams. The energy absorption capacity of SCC beams subjected to three-point bending scales approximately proportionally with the number of “well-oriented fibres” bridging the catastrophic failure crack, which emphasizes the importance of adequately orienting steel fibres with the magnetic orientation technique.

Promotieonderzoek geeft meer inzichten in constructieve eigenschappen, zoals sterkte, stabiliteit en hechting, zowel tijdens het printproces als gedurende de levensduur van een geprint object.

Controlling the structural behaviour of 3D printed concrete designs

Digital fabrication techniques with concrete and cementitious materials have seen a large amount of research and industrial activity recently, with industrialization of techniques such as 3D printing becoming more of a reality. The potential to revolutionize construction is real, not only through reducing costs, but also bringing more sustainability and increased functionality. Material challenges are significant, chief among them understanding and controlling early age hydration and the link to rheology, incorporation of reinforcement, and overall, the link between processing, material, and performance, both from a structural and durability point of view. Interdisciplinarity is crucial, as the field brings together many disparate fields and has been driven by fields such as architecture so far. This article is a review of the state of the art in the newly forming field of digital fabrication with concrete, and aims to provide some direction in terms of the research challenges encountered thus far.

This contribution studies failure by elastic buckling and plastic collapse of wall structures during extrusion-based 3D printing processes. Results obtained from the parametric 3D printing model recently developed by Suiker (Int J Mech Sci, 137: 145–170, 2018), among which closed-form expressions useful for engineering practice, are validated against results of dedicated FEM simulations and 3D concrete printing experiments. In the comparison with the FEM simulations, various types of wall structures are considered, which are subjected to linear and exponentially decaying curing processes at different curing rates. For almost all cases considered, the critical wall buckling length computed by the parametric model turns out to be in excellent agreement with the result from the FEM simulations. Some differences may occur for the particular case of a straight wall clamped along its vertical edges and subjected to a relatively high curing rate, which can be ascribed to the approximate form of the horizontal buckling shape used in the parametric model. The buckling responses computed by the two models for a wall structure with imperfections of different wavelengths under increasing deflection correctly approaches the corresponding bifurcation buckling length. Further, under a specific change of the material properties, the parametric model and the FEM model predict a similar transition in failure mechanism, from elastic buckling to plastic collapse. The experimental validation of the parametric model is directed towards walls manufactured by 3D concrete printing, whereby the effect of the material curing rate on the failure behaviour of the wall is explored by studying walls of various widths. At a relatively low curing rate, the experimental buckling load is well described when the parametric model uses a linear curing function. However, the experimental results suggest the extension of the linear curing function with a quadratic term if the curing process under a relatively long printing time is accelerated by thermal heating of the 3D printing facility. In conclusion, the present validation study confirms that the parametric model provides a useful research and design tool for the prediction of structural failure during extrusion-based 3D printing. The model can be applied to quickly and systematically explore the influence of the individual printing process parameters on the failure response of 3D-printed walls, which can be translated to directives regarding the optimisation of material usage and printing time.

Due to the lack of formwork, a key issue in the novel technology of filament-based 3D concrete printing (3DCP) is the ‘buildability’: the capacity of the deposited dormant material to support itself during the print process. Since the strength and stiffness development of fresh concrete is determined by chemical and physical processes, it may be expected that the temperature of the material that is being printed influences the buildability. This paper presents the results of several experiments that have been performed to study this effect. First, fresh material specimens were cooled or heated to different temperatures and subjected to unconfined uniaxial compression tests at ages of 30, 75 and 200 minutes (relating to material setting time as well as common print durations). A clear effect on both compressive strength and stiffness was noted at an age of 75 minutes. Subsequently, a print trial was performed on a rectangular shape partially heated by heat lamps. The results supported the experiment on material samples: the buildability of the smaller object (with a shorter printing time) was not influenced by externally applied heat, whereas the larger object was. In a third experiment, a print trial was performed on two shapes for which the water was pre-cooled or pre-heated before mixing with the dry mortar. Warm water resulted in higher buildability of the objects, but also in reduced interlayer strength and an increased risk of system overheating, which instigates the need for further research in the relations between temperature and 3DCP.

New additive manufacturing methods for cementitious materials hold a high potential to increase automation in the construction industry. However, these methods require new materials to be developed that meet performance requirements related to specific characteristics of the manufacturing process. The appropriate characterization methods of these materials are still a matter of debate. This study proposes a rheology investigation to systematically develop a printable strain hardening cementitious composite mix design. Two known mixtures were employed and the influence of several parameters, such as the water-to-solid ratio, fibre volume percentage and employment of chemical admixtures, were investigated using a ram extruder and Benbow-Bridgwater equation. Through printing trials, rheology parameters as the initial bulk and shear yield stress were correlated with variables commonly employed to assess printing quality of cementitious materials. The rheology properties measured were used to predict the number of layers a developed mixture could support. Selected mixtures had their mechanical performance assessed through four-point bending, uni-axial tensile and compressive strength tests, to confirm that strain hardening behaviour was obtained. It was concluded that the presented experimental and theoretical framework are promising tools, as the bulk yield stress seems to predict buildability, while shear yield stress may indicate a threshold for pumpability. Keywords: 3D printing, Rheology, Strain hardening, Additive manufacturing

Bio-based composite materials in architecture have gained various new applications due to their availability, renewability, and environmentally-friendly characteristics. This paper demonstrates the use of bio-based building materials for load-bearing structures through a 1:1 realized segmented shell pavilion, referred to as BioMat Pavilion 2018. The pavilion consisted of 121 parametrically optimized curved elements prepared by a vacuum-assisted veneer-reinforcement lamination process. The biocomposite panels were fabricated from elastic or flexible fibreboards applied as sandwich cores laminated with veneer from both sides to provide elevated stiffness. Digitally prefabricated elements were bolted together on site into four shell segments, which were later lifted up and screwed, to three curved timber-intersecting beams, fixed to three footing foundations. In this paper analysis method, form-finding hierarchy and construction stages of the 3.6 m height, 9.5 m span, covering an area of around 55m2 are discussed.

Additive manufacturing is gaining ground in the construction industry. The potential to improve on current construction methods is significant. One of such methods being explored currently, both in academia and in construction practice, is the additive manufacturing of concrete (AMoC). Albeit a steadily growing number of researchers and private enterprises active in this field, AMoC is still in its infancy. Different variants in this family of manufacturing methods are being developed and improved continuously. Fundamental scientific understanding of the relations between design, material, process, and product is being explored. The collective body of work in that area is still very limited. After sketching the potential of AMoC for construction, this paper introduces the variants of AMoC under development around the globe and goes on to describe one of these in detail, the 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) facility of the Eindhoven University of Technology. It is compared to other AMoC methods as well as to 3D printing in general. Subsequently, the paper will address the characteristics of 3DCP product geometry and structure, and discuss issues on parameter relations and experimental research. Finally, it will present the primary obstacles that stand between the potential of 3DCP and large-scale application in practice, and discuss the expected evolution of AMoC in general.

Digital fabrication technologies utilizing concrete (DFC) have recently enabled form freedom for the production of a variety of concrete-made objects having mainly architectural and aesthetic functions. Structural elements or civil/building structures made by DFC demonstrate a high engineering potential, mainly for tailoring the final shape while optimising the structural/functional performance, material use, overall costs, and architectural effectiveness. However, the design of structurally efficient DFC constructions or components is often faced with a lack of a common structural engineering approach that can adapt to specific DFC particularities. In this paper, we provide a systematic overview of a number of DFC structural projects developed thus far. A comprehensive discussion about structural engineering details is provided, addressing the related fundamental structural issues and envisioning opportunities and challenges toward achieving the full potential of DFC., Cement and Concrete Research, 133 (Special Issue on Digital Concrete 2020), ISSN:0008-8846, Special Issue on Digital Concrete 2020

One of the geometrical restrictions associated with printed paste materials such as concrete, is that material must be self-supporting during printing. In this research paper a new methodology for 3D Printing Concrete onto a temporary freeform surface is presented. This is achieved by setting up a workflow for combining a Flexible Mould developed at TU Delft with a 4-degrees-of-freedom gantry printer (4 DOF) provided at TU Eindhoven. A number of hypothetical cases are studied, namely fully-printing geometries or combining 3D printing with casting concrete. The final outcome is a 5 m2 partially-printed and partially-cast shell structure, combined with a CNC-milled mould simulating a Flexible Mould.

Case study projects based on Digitally Fabricated Concrete (DFC) are presented in an increasing pace around the globe. Generally, though, it is not reported what structural requirements (if any) these structures meet and how compliance to these requirements was established. Published material research is often not connected to the presented case studies, and even when it is, it is not necessarily obvious their small scale results can be applied to full scale structures as some scale effects should be anticipated. Caution is required as DFC related material tests are still under development and scale effects in DFC have hardly been studied. Therefore, it is recommendable to perform large scale testing, in the range of 1:5 to 1:1, if DFC is applied to actual use structures. This paper presents such testing for two projects, a pavilion in Denmark (not realized) and a bridge in the Netherlands (realized). In both cases, elements printed with the 3D Concrete Printing facility of the Eindhoven University of Technology were intended for actual load bearing performance. The conservative designs past the test requirements, but nevertheless some important findings with regard to element manufacturing and structural behaviour were experienced. It is concluded that large scale testing remains advisable for DFC structures as long as not all relevant aspects of the technology are quantitatively understood, at least when new concepts are being applied.

The current state of research and development into the additive manufacturing of concrete is poised to become a disruptive technology in the construction industry. Although many academic and industrial institutions have successfully realised full-scale structures, the limitations in the current codes of practice to evaluate their structural integrity have resulted in most of these structures still not being certified as safe for public utilisation and thus deemed as test prototypes for display purpose only. To realise a 3D concrete printed (3DCP) structure which could be certified safe for public use, a bridge was realised using the print facility of the Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e) based on the concept of ‘Design by Testing’. This paper holistically discusses the complications encountered while realising a reinforced 3DCP bridge in a public traffic network and decisions taken to find solutions for overcoming them.

A numerical model was developed to analyse the mechanical behaviour of fresh, 3D printed concrete, in the range of 0 to 90 min after material deposition. The model was based on a time-dependent Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and linear stress-strain behaviour up to failure. An experimental program, consisting of unconfined uniaxial compression tests and direct shear tests, was set-up and performed to obtain the required material properties. The material tests showed that the Young's modulus and cohesion linearly increase with fresh concrete age, as do the compressive and shear strength. The Poisson's ratio and angle of internal friction, on the other hand, remain constant. Subsequently, the model was validated by comparison to printing experiments. Modelling of the printed samples reproduced the experimental results qualitatively, but the quantitative agreement with the print experiments could be improved. However, the deviations can well be explained and the type of failure-deformation mode was predicted accurately.

Industrial and academic partners from the Netherlands realized the world’s first 3D concrete printed bicycle bridge. Certification safe use in practice was obtained through the concept of “Design by Testing”. Innovative reinforcement concepts were applied to guarantee safe failure behaviour. This paper discusses the design, testing, manufacturing and assembling of the bridge. Published version

The fabrication of novel reinforced concrete structures using digital technologies necessarily requires the definition of suitable strategies for reinforcement implementation. The successful integration of existing reinforcement systems, such as steel rebar, rods, wires, fibres or filaments, will indeed allow for printed concrete structures to be designed using standard structural codes. However, reinforcement integration has to be compatible with either the specific printing technique adopted for the structural element production or with its shape. This paper provides a systematic overview of a number of digital fabrication techniques using reinforced concrete that have been developed so far, proposing a possible organization by structural principle, or place in the manufacturing process.

The Material Deposition Method (MDM) is enjoying increasing attention as an additive method to create concrete mortar structures characterised by a high degree of form-freedom, a lack of geometrical repetition, and automated construction. Several small-scale structures have been realised around the world, or are under preparation. However, the nature of this construction method is unsuitable for conventional reinforcement methods to achieve ductile failure behaviour. Sometimes, this is solved by combining printing with conventional casting and reinforcing techniques. This study, however, explores an alternative strategy, namely to directly entrain a metal cable in the concrete filament during printing to serve as reinforcement. A device is introduced to apply the reinforcement. Several options for online reinforcement media are compared for printability. Considerations specific to the manufacturing process are discussed. Subsequently, pull-out tests on cast and printed specimens provide an initial characterisation of bond behaviour. Bending tests furthermore show the potential of this reinforcement method. The bond stress of cables in printed concrete was comparable to values reported for smooth rebar but lower than that of the same cables in cast concrete. The scatter in experimental results was high. When sufficient bond length is available, ductile failure behaviour for tension parallel to the filament direction can be achieved, even though cable slip occurs. Further improvements to the process should pave the way to achieve better post-crack resistance, as the concept in itself is feasible.

Recent years have seen a rapid growth of additive manufacturing methods for concrete construction. Generally, these methods are based on a linear sequence of design → print path definition → actual printer actions in a print environment. However, printing experiments show that a large number of parameters influence the printing process. Not all of these can be predicted accurate on forehand. Therefore, a method is introduced that allows real-time adjustment of the print process. As a proof-of-concept, a measurement system for the nozzle height has been developed and tested. Because this variable relates to machine properties, environmental conditions as well as material behaviour, it is a crucial parameter to control. In two case study prints, the effectiveness of the device was shown. In one study, the printer could follow a range of irregular curves in the print bed, whereas only a simple flat rectangular print path had been programmed. In the other, it was shown the print path could be adjusted to vertical deformation of the previous layers of printed filament in a tubular object of several dozen layers. Thus, premature failure through irregular loading of the object during printing was avoided. Further expansion of the use of real-time measurement devices may be anticipated in the future. Besides more advanced geometrical measuring, chemical and physical conditions such as concrete temperature (both before and after deposition), surface wetness, and environment humidity, can be recorded. Combined with the machine action log, this should result in a detailed set of as-built data of the printed object, allowing e.g. for a geometrical clash control with the design as well as other quality controls.

Additive manufacturing and 3D printing are rapidly developing digital fabrication techniques (Lu et al. 2015). After the first steps in small scale printing of metals (Frazier 2014) and plastics (Gibson et al. 2014) have been made, research from various groups around the world is now also focusing on large scale printing in concrete (Lim et al. 2012) and making this technology more suitable for the construction scale. The potential of using this technology is that it will be possible to create complex and/or customised concrete designs with the expectation that the costs will be low and the construction speeds will be high. Additionally, this new technology will provide opportunities to create more efficient structures. Structures can already be optimised in the early stages of the design for weight and structural performance, but the resulting optimised structures are often difficult to manufacture due to the resulting geometry of the design. Additive manufacturing can address this issue without high costs for moulds and labour. This paper will present a novel methodology to include material performance and manufacturing constraints of 3D printed concrete in design optimisation processes. The study examines the possibility to optimise concrete structures in the design phase. In order to save material and thus create more sustainable and more cost efficient structures, a topology optimisation method has been created specifically for 3D printed concrete. Traditional topology optimisation methods consider isotropic and linear elastic material and will not necessarily produce realisable and reliable optimised structures. In the algorithm presented constraints of the printing process and material properties from physical testing of this layered material have been considered in the optimisation. By adopting this methodology more realistic and feasible optimal concrete structures can be designed.

3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) is being developed in an increasing number of places around the globe. The focus is mainly on a trial-and-error based exploration of the possibilities. However, to obtain a viable manufacturing technology and realize the 3DCP potential, a higher level of process control is required. Four levels of control are therefore identified. Research efforts and key results to achieve a higher level of control than the current one are presented. As a final goal, optimization algorithms should be able to define optimum print sessions, based on allowable print strategies and structural analysis models describing both the fresh and hardened concrete state. This will result in new geometries appropriate to this specific manufacturing technique. These geometries, however, can only be applied when structural safety is achieved, either by loading conditions (compression structures), hybrid solutions (combination with conventional reinforced concrete), embedded reinforcement, FRC and prestress. Such solutions are therefore being explored.