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This article evaluates how the principles developed for the fair, reasonable and non-discriminatory (FRAND) licensing of standard-essential patents could be applied to FRAND data access as envisaged under the Digital Markets Act and the Data Act and proposes a negotiation scheme to specify the FRAND obligations. Firstly, this article describes the access rights under the Data Act and identifies its four layers to accelerate data sharing (Section 2). Secondly, the role of FRAND data sharing in the EU Data Package is described, and the specifics of FRAND in the context of the Data Act and the Digital Markets Act are developed (Section 3). Based thereon, the differences and commonalities of data sharing as envisaged in the Acts with respect to the FRAND licensing of standard-essential patents are described, and a negotiation scheme for FRAND terms under the current Data Act Proposal is developed under adaptation of the principles from Huawei/ZTE (Section 4).

The widespread use of algorithms for prediction-based decisions urges us to consider the question of what it means for a given act or practice to be discriminatory. Building upon work by Kusner and colleagues in the field of machine learning, we propose a counterfactual condition as a necessary requirement on discrimination. To demonstrate the philosophical relevance of the proposed condition, we consider two prominent accounts of discrimination in the recent literature, by Lippert-Rasmussen and Hellman respectively, that do not logically imply our condition and show that they face important objections. Specifically, Lippert-Rasmussen’s definition proves to be over-inclusive, as it classifies some acts or practices as discriminatory when they are not, whereas Hellman’s account turns out to lack explanatory power precisely insofar as it does not countenance a counterfactual condition on discrimination. By defending the necessity of our counterfactual condition, we set the conceptual limits for justified claims about the occurrence of discriminatory acts or practices in society, with immediate applications to the ethics of algorithmic decision-making.

Over the past decade, countries such as France, Belgium, Denmark, Austria, Latvia, and Bulgaria have banned face-coverings from public spaces. These bans are popularly known as ‘burqa bans’ as they seem to have been drafted with the aim of preventing people from wearing burqas and niqabs specifically. The scholarly response to these bans has been overwhelmingly negative, with several lawyers and philosophers arguing that they violate the human right to freedom of religion. While this article shares some of the concerns that have been raised, it argues that banning face-coverings in public is morally justified under certain conditions with the exception of facemasks that are necessary for the containment of infectious diseases, such as COVID-19. The reason for this is that those who publicly cover their face make it very difficult for other members of society to socially interact with them, especially for those who are deaf or hard-of-hearing, which is problematic in an age where many people are chronically lonely or at risk of becoming chronically lonely. As such, this article can be understood as a more elaborate, and arguably more sophisticated, defence of the justification that France offered for its face-covering ban before the European Court of Human Rights, namely that covering one’s face undermines the conditions for ‘living together’.

Recent research has documented a small but significant correlation between psychopathic capacities and utilitarian moral judgment, although the findings are generally inconsistent and unclear. We propose that one way to make sense of mixed findings is to consider variation in perspective-taking capacities of psychopathic individuals. With this in mind, we had criminal offenders (n = 60), who varied in their psychopathy levels according to the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), respond to common sacrificial moral dilemmas (e.g., trolley dilemmas) under different conditions. In a baseline condition, participants simply responded to the sacrificial moral dilemmas as is typically done in previous research. In an "emotion-salient" condition, participants had to reason about the emotions of another person after solving moral dilemmas (deliberative processing). In the "emotion-ambiguous" condition, participants saw images of people in distress, after solving moral dilemmas, but did not have to explicitly reason about such emotions (spontaneous processing). The four PCL-R facets predicted distinct interference effects depending on spontaneous versus deliberative processing of hypothetical victim's emotions. The findings suggest that the use of a multi-faceted approach to account for cognitive and moral correlates of psychopathy may help address previously mixed results. Implications and future directions for theory and research are discussed.

Federalism is ostensibly misplaced to mitigate climate change as a global public concern as it is prone to import the inadequate incentive structures existing at the international level into the domestic domain. Drawing from the legal structures and procedures of Swiss federalism, this article attempts to provide a more nuanced assessment of the relationship between laws designed to mitigate climate change and federalism. It seeks to demonstrate that federalism may support effective policies to mitigate climate change, provided that the architecture of domestic climate change law meets certain criteria. These include considerable federal powers, a degree of institutional flexibility, robust formal channels of influence for subnational actors on policy formulation at the federal level, ample room for regulatory experimentalism at the lower layers of federalism, and the ‘right to act’ conferred on the Federation to avoid political impasse among the constituent units.

There is little consensus between European States regarding the legal treatment of surrogacy in general and of transnational commercial surrogacy in particular. Against this background, the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) in this matter is of particular significance since it provides some common ground for the legal treatment of transnational commercial surrogacy in Europe. For this reason, the present paper will outline the development of the jurisprudence of the ECtHR on transnational commercial surrogacy, giving particular attention to the Mennesson and Labassee decisions, the Paradiso/Campanelli case, and the 2019 Advisory Opinion. On this basis, it will conclude by underlining the importance of the best interests of the child principle in the jurisprudence of the ECtHR on transnational commercial surrogacy.

Peer reviewed: True, In this paper we examined the impact of the quality of teacher-student relationships at age 10 on young people's delinquency at ages 13, 15, and 17 utilizing propensity-score matching. The young people were matched based on 105 characteristics, measured at ages 7 to 10. The sample comprised 1483 (49.4% female) adolescents representing around 80 different countries of origin, residing in Zurich, Switzerland. We found that young people who reported a better relationship with their teacher at age 10, engaged in fewer delinquent acts at ages 13, 15, and 17. These findings suggest that when young people perceive a better relationship with their teachers this serves as a protective factor against their engagement in delinquency up to 7 years later.

International audience; Urban security has become a pressing political issue in many European cities. This study seeks to understand why some city governments consider urban security to be a policy priority, whereas others do not. Using data from a recent survey of 2674 city mayors in 28 European countries, we test four hypotheses on factors associated with the prioritization of urban security by local politicians. The results show that European mayors’ emphasis on urban security as a policy goal varies strongly across countries, as well as across cities within countries. Besides contextual factors related to national political culture, welfare regimes and local autonomy, we find that mayors’ preferences on security policy are most strongly associated with political ideology, that is, their self-placement on the left–right spectrum. In addition, crime trends and public opinion about crime play a role. The study demonstrates that there is no convergence of political agendas on urban security issues across European cities.

Social justice is turning into an international concern. This development is a response to the continuous rise of socioeconomic inequality – the gap between the rich and the poor –growing in several OECD member states since the 1970s. International human rights law (IHRL) presently only establishes a weak normative framework regarding social justice. This article argues that the full potential of this framework has still not been activated by international human rights adjudication. There are several reasons for this: a complex history of ideas suggesting little common understanding of the notion of social justice, the focus of international human rights adjudication on individual rather than constitutional justice, and the priority of liberty rights over equality rights. Yet, the domination of the liberal over the social in international human rights adjudication has started to change. The article shows how the social justice concern is beginning to be incorporated into IHRL by judicial interpretation of international equal protection and non-discrimination law (international equal protection law, IEPL). Integrating the social justice concern into IEPL is a legitimate yet transformative step as it increases judicial discretion at the international level. More than many other human rights, socioeconomic equality is highly context-specific and depends on a complex factual assessment of the local circumstances. This exacerbates the institutional legitimacy challenge levelled against international human rights courts. However, the article argues that the legitimacy challenge can be alleviated by focusing more on procedural rather than a substantive international review.

This essay examines three potential arguments against high-frequency trading and offers a qualified critique of the practice. In concrete terms, it examines a variant of high-frequency trading that is all about speed—low-latency trading—in light of moral issues surrounding arbitrage, information asymmetries, and systemic risk. The essay focuses on low-latency trading and the role of speed because it also aims to show that the commonly made assumption that speed in financial markets is morally neutral is wrong. For instance, speed is a necessary condition for low-latency trading’s potential to cause harm in “flash crashes.” On the other hand, it also plays a crucial role in a Lockean defense against low-latency trading being wasteful developed in this essay. Finally, this essay discusses the implications of these findings for related high-frequency trading techniques like futures arbitrage or latency arbitrage—as well as for an argument as to why quote stuffing is wrong. Overall, the qualifications offered in this essay act as a counterbalance to overblown claims about trading at high speeds being wrong.

Populist and authoritarian leaders are increasingly coming to power in large countries. They often have a climate sceptic approach and do away with mitigation policies when coming to power. Increasing impacts of extreme meteorological events linked to climate change could lead to a situation where the supporters of the populist leader or elites crucial for the survival of an authoritarian regime are pushing to do something to address climate change. In order not to lose power, the leader may look for quick and cheap solutions. In such a context, solar radiation modification (SRM), for example, by stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI), will become very attractive as it is likely to have low costs and rapid effects. Populist or authoritarian governments are unlikely to care for negative impacts of SRM abroad as they often act nationalistically with an explicit disdain for multilateral solutions. We discuss the incentive structure and political economy that populist and authoritarian leaders may face regarding unilateral use of SRM and elaborate how the international community could try to prevent or at least ‘contain’ such unilateral uses of SRM. Unfortunately, such ‘containment’ is contingent on the most powerful states not being populist or authoritarian regimes.

ZusammenfassungDie Veränderungen zur Klassifizierung schizophrener Psychosen in der Revision der ICD (International Classification of Diseases) gehen nicht mit einer grundsätzlichen Veränderung der bekannten Konzepte einher. Die Beurteilung der psychiatrischen Voraussetzungen der Schuldfähigkeit wird kaum beeinflusst. Die Aufgabe der Subtypen der Schizophrenie ist jedoch möglicherweise mit der Gefahr verbunden, dass die besonderen und individuellen Verläufe bei Betroffenen mit schizophrenen Psychosen in ihrem Variantenreichtum nicht mehr bekannt sein und wahrgenommen werden. Dies ist insbesondere problematisch in Fällen, in denen die psychotische Erkrankung nicht in dem weit verbreiteten und bekannten Phänomen „paranoid-halluzinatorisches Syndrom“ mündet, sondern eher mit Verhaltensauffälligkeiten einhergeht oder mit Veränderungen des Affektes, sprich den hebephrenen Verläufen. Die forensische Psychiatrie ist gefordert, das Wissen um solche Verläufe aktiv zu fördern, um jugendliche Straftäter, bei denen Psychopathologie mit „normalen“ Besonderheiten der Entwicklung verschränkt ist, adäquat als im Sinne der §§ 20 und 21 StGB „krankhaft seelisch gestört“ zu identifizieren und ihre sachgerechte forensisch-psychiatrische Beurteilung zu gewährleisten.

ZusammenfassungMit der Einführung der ICD-11 (International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 11. Auflage) wird die Diagnostik von Persönlichkeitsstörungen grundlegend verändert. Die Notwendigkeit einer Abkehr von der traditionellen typologischen Auffassung und Beschreibung von Persönlichkeitsstörungen wurde aufgrund folgender Problemstellungen gesehen: Das kategoriale Konzept einer Persönlichkeitsstörung nach ICD-10 (International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10. Auflage) begünstige die Stigmatisierung Betroffener, was dazu beitrage, dass die Diagnose in der klinischen Praxis zu selten vergeben werde. Wenn sie gestellt werde, komme es zu einer (zu) hohen Prävalenz der Persönlichkeitsstörung „nicht näher bezeichnet“ bzw. zu hohen Komorbiditäten zwischen verschiedenen Persönlichkeitsstörungen, was Zweifel an der Reliabilität der Persönlichkeitsstörungen begründe. Außerdem sei das in der ICD-10 geforderte Kriterium der Zeitstabilität unter Berücksichtigung von Verlaufsstudien nicht mehr sinnvoll anwendbar. Der Artikel skizziert die Hintergründe für die Überarbeitung der Konzeption von Persönlichkeitsstörungen, um nachfolgend das aktuelle diagnostische Verfahren nach ICD-11 zu illustrieren. Abschließend werden die Implikationen der neuen diagnostischen Vorgaben für die forensisch-psychiatrische Schuldfähigkeitsbegutachtung diskutiert und anhand von Persönlichkeitsprofilen beispielhaft die Auswirkungen der Neukonzeption für die Therapieplanung bzw. -prognose dargestellt und diskutiert.

ZusammenfassungDer Risikoorientierte Sanktionenvollzug (ROS) hat zum Ziel, Rückfälle größtmöglich zu reduzieren und Ressourcen zu stärken. In verschiedenen Evaluationen wurde ROS untersucht und weiterentwickelt. Nun soll eine Veränderungsmessung konzipiert werden, die ROS erweitert und die Abbildung von Veränderungen transparenter und nachvollziehbarer machen soll. Hierzu werden sowohl personen- als auch umweltbezogene Gesichtspunkte herangezogen. Folgende 3 personenbezogenen Aspekte werden unterschieden: Veränderungspotenzial (welches sich aus Veränderungsfähigkeit und Veränderungsmotivation zusammensetzt), delinquenzbezogene Prozessvariablen und Stufen der Verhaltensänderung. Sowohl das Veränderungspotenzial als auch die delinquenzbezogenen Prozessvariablen erfassen die Bereiche Wollen, Wissen und Können. Die Stufen der Verhaltensänderung umfassen die Ebenen Absichtslosigkeit, Absichtsbildung, Handlung und Aufrechterhaltung. Die umweltbezogenen Aspekte umfassen zentrale Lebensbereiche wie Arbeit, Wohnen, soziales Umfeld etc. und werden anhand einer umweltbezogenen Veränderungsmessung bewertet, die ebenfalls die Bereiche Wollen, Wissen und Können umfasst. Umwelt- und personenbezogene Aspekte werden übergeordnet in der Ausprägung des Problemprofils betrachtet. Die Ausprägung des Problemprofils betrachtet, anders als die 3 personenbezogenen Aspekte, nicht nur konkrete deliktpräventive Aspekte, sondern auch die Auswirkung des Problemprofils in nichtdeliktrelevanten Situationen und Lebensbereichen. Abschließend werden Limitationen diskutiert sowie ein Ausblick auf eine zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt folgende Evaluation gegeben.

Funder: University of Zurich, The Zurich Project on the Social Development from Childhood to Adulthood (z-proso) began in 2004 in response to the need for a better evidence base to support optimal child social development and prevent crime and violence. Since then, the study has tracked the development of a diverse sample of youths (N = 1,675 in the target sample; ~50% female) from age 7 (n = 1,360) to age 20 (n = 1,180), with primary data collection waves at ages 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, and 20. The study uses a multi-method, multi-informant design that combines teacher, youth, and parent reports with observational and behavioural measures, biosampling, functional imaging, and ecological momentary assessment. Analyses of the data have contributed important evidence to a diversity of topics in child and adolescent development, illuminating the developmental roots of crime and aggression, the impacts of exposure to different forms and combinations of victimisation, and trajectories of mental health and neurodevelopmental symptoms.

In the aftermath of shocking workplace scandals, people are often baffled when individuals within the organization were aware of clear-cut wrongdoing yet did not inform authorities. The current research suggests that moral concern for the suffering that a transgressor might face if a crime were reported is an under-recognized, powerful force that shapes whistleblowing in organizations, particularly when transgressors are fellow members of a highly entitative group (i.e., a group that is perceived as highly unified). Two experiments show that group entitativity heightens concern about possible consequences that the transgressor would face if a crime were to be reported, and that this concern reduces the likelihood of reporting wrongdoing in organizations to authorities. Further, the studies identify a mechanism through which concern about the transgressor is heightened in highly entitative groups: potential reporters perceive that the transgressor felt remorse for their crime. Thus, when fellow members of highly entitative organizations commit crimes, people are more likely to imagine that these transgressors felt anxiety or guilt about their actions, and this prompts greater concern for transgressors in ways that encourage people to let them “off the hook.” We discuss the implications of these findings for how reporting to authorities can be encouraged within highly entitative organizations.

Semantics of the Old, the New and the Modern in Learned Canon Law: Observations on the Interpretation of ‘antiqua’, ‘nova’, ‘hodie’ and ‘moderna’ in the Science of Canon Law, 12th–15th Century. In using the terms ‘antiqua’, ‘nova’, ‘hodie’ and ‘moderna’ as descriptors of change in law and legal knowledge, the science of medieval canon law adopted a longstanding semantic tradition of theology and rhetorics. The article addresses these usages and argues that they represented different understandings of the relationship between the past and the present, ranging from the idea of progress and continuous change to the concept of superior authority of the past towards the present.

Over the last decades, various groups seeking international legal recognition of new human rights claims have succeeded in their endeavors. Some movements have crafted such convincing demands that their participation has even become an implicit condition of the legitimacy of the resulting human rights documents. But what are the bases of claims for new human rights, and how do they help to confront the argument that human rights’ expansion also entails their dilution? This Article explores narratives based on two different concepts, namely the political-science concept of affectedness and the legal-ethical concept of vulnerability. It does so by drawing on the process for the recognition of peasant human rights at the United Nations. The Article explores what it understands as the peasant critique of existing human rights by looking at the differences and interrelations between affectedness and vulnerability-based argumentation. It argues that an approach premised purely on affectedness, and thus focused on participation, is less empowering than one that includes a regard for vulnerability, which serves as a heuristic device for identifying and challenging inequalities, demands substantive outcomes, and can serve to craft a convincing theoretical account of human rights protections.

Im Jahr 2018 wurden in Deutschland 140.775 Opfer intimpartnerschaftlicher Gewalt verzeichnet – eine ahnlich hohe Zahl wie bereits in den letzten Jahren – darunter 142 Opfer vollendeter Mord- oder Totschlagsdelikte. Damit macht Gewalt in der aktuellen oder ehemaligen Intimpartnerschaft einen betrachtlichen Anteil an der gesamten polizeilich registrierten Gewalt aus. Intimpartnergewalt wird dabei uber eine breite Altersspanne, verschiedene Beziehungsformen und Geschlechterkonstellationen hinweg festgestellt. Im vorliegenden Beitrag werden zentrale Aspekte intimpartnerschaftlicher Gewalt anhand von aktueller empirischer Forschung diskutiert, mit Schwerpunkt auf deutschsprachige Lander. Der Beitrag gibt einen Uberblick uber aktuelle Kennzahlen zur Intimpartnergewalt in Deutschland und bietet eine Zusammenfassung uber Typologien, die verschiedene Subtypen von (TaterInnen) intimpartnerschaftlicher Gewalt unterscheiden. Weiterhin wird auf individuelle Risikofaktoren fur die Ausubung von Intimpartnergewalt und auf aktuelle Ansatze zur Risikoeinschatzung eingegangen. Abschliesend werden Praventions- und Interventionsansatze aufgezeigt. Dabei wird ein in Zurich aktuell praktizierter interdisziplinarer Ansatz zu fruhzeitiger Erkennung, Einschatzung und Entscharfung von problematischen (Beziehungs‑)Konstellationen, mit dem Ziel Intimpartnergewalt zu verhindern, vorgestellt.

The buyer’s right to request replacement of any non-conforming goods is today a standard remedy in many jurisdictions. This development was also influenced by the widespread effect of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) and the Council Directive (EC) 1999/44 on consumer sales, which both grant the buyer a right to replacement. However, some questions related to the requirement that replacement has to be ‘free of charge’ continue to be disputed under both legal systems, as well as under the newly introduced Council Directive (EC) 2019/771 on consumer sales. This article intends to discuss how the term ‘free of charge’ is being interpreted in business-to-business as well as in business-to-consumer sales contracts and whether there is any need to differentiate between the two types of sales contracts.

It is popular to view international human rights law as universal. In a normative sense, human rights universality refers to certain qualities of human rights norms. These qualities have long been under attack, most recently by what is called here human rights nationalism. The main point made in this article is that some of the criticism levelled against normative human rights universality can be accommodated through interpretation. To this end, non-universality of human rights is judicially created (argumentative non-universality). This article offers an analysis of argumentative non-universality in the context of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). It shows that the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) operationalizes argumentative non-universality through a conception of asymmetric protection, by using context as a difference-making fact and by allowing, in certain cases, for a decentralized interpretation of rights under the ECHR. As argued here, resorting to argumentative non-universality sometimes makes sense because non-universality takes seriously the fact that individual freedom is, to some extent, socially and politically conditioned. Furthermore, non-universality allows for reasonable interpretive pluralism, and it contributes to the institutional legitimacy of the ECtHR. In conclusion, the ECtHR is, rightly so, an ‘interpreter of universality’ (as quoted by Judge Pinto de Albuquerque) as it is an interpreter of the non-universality of convention rights.

This special issue of the journal is about one of the most significant, yet largely overlooked, international rights instruments concerning indigenous peoples: the ILO Convention 169 on the rights ...

Accepted version posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich, ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-197017 Historically, burden sharing of mitigation in the climate regime was operationalized as a binary division of the world between the Annex I group of industrialized countries with emission reduction targets and the non-Annex I (developing) countries without them. The 2015 Paris Agreement arguably ended such division by introducing a bottom-up system of self-differentiated emission reduction commitments through countries’ Nationally Determined Contributions. This paradigmatic regime shift creates the opportunity to research to what extent it has been accompanied by a similar change in member states’ negotiation positions and policymaking. I explore whether key developing countries’ discourses regarding burden sharing of mitigation have changed pre- and post-Paris and how this relates to their own mitigation contributions. Has the Paris Agreement led to a new way of thinking regarding burden sharing? Do countries in favour of abolishing the Annex I–non-Annex I divide also propose more ambitious climate policies? I rely on text analysis of written position papers submitted to the negotiations, focusing on members of two coalitions at opposite extremes of developing countries’ positions: the Independent Association of Latin America and the Caribbean, a group of progressive countries arguing for more comprehensive climate agreements; and the Like-Minded Developing Countries, a coalition that aims to uphold the regime’s differentiation between developed and developing countries.

Monetary crises as well as disruptions of the financial system have been part of European history since the late Middle Ages. The essay argues that these developments reveal remarkable limitations to legal power and financial sovereignty: From the very beginning, the power to set monetary value was in the hands of the rulers, kings and queens, princes and even city councils. There were, however, legal limits to their discretion. These limits developed from the idea that the users of mints and money should not be at the mercy of their rulers when it came to monetary value, particularly concerning debasement and devaluation. While such legal rules did not always prove effective, fiscally driven devaluations were frequently without lasting impact due to the power of the market actors. Even when governments and rulers created intermediary entities like their own banks, their success on the financial markets was anything but certain. It was only with the establishment of central banks, not to mention international cooperation between central banks as well as governments, that states were finally able to achieve greater influence over market dynamics.

This study examines homicide trends in seven European countries – Denmark, Estonia, Finland, the Netherlands, Scotland, Sweden and Switzerland – all of which manifested a substantial drop in homicide mortality between 1990 and 2016. By using data from the European Homicide Monitor, a coding scheme created to enable cross-country comparisons, combined with the national cause-of-death statistics, we explore generality versus specificity of the homicide drop. We examine changes in the demographic structure of victims and offenders and disaggregate homicides by different subtypes of lethal incidents, such as family-related homicides referring to conflicts between family members, and criminal milieu homicides occurring in the context of robberies, gang-related conflicts or organised crime. Results point to the generality of the drop: in most of the countries studied, the declining trend included all homicide types. The overall decline in homicide mortality was driven mostly by the decline in male victimisation and offending. In most of the countries, the gender distribution of victims and offenders changed only slightly during the study period, whereas the development of the distribution of homicide types manifested greater diversity. Our findings illustrate the benefits of disaggregated analyses in comparative homicide research.

International audience; Between 2010 and 2012 and with bank stability as the ultimate target, five European countries implemented a tax levy on banks’ liabilities thereby decreasing the cost of equity relative to the cost of debt. Using a difference-in-differences approach we assess the impact of this tax levy on banks’ participation in the syndicated loan market. We further investigate the impact of the tax levy along bank size and capital structure. We find that banks located in countries where the tax levy was implemented supply more credit. This increase is more significant for larger lenders and banks that are more capital constrained.

In the last years, the number of connections in mobile telecommunication networks has increased rampantly, and in consequence, the number and type of relationships among entities. Should such interactions are to be profitable, entities will need to rely on each other. Hence, mobile telecommunication networks demand trust and reputation models that allow developing feasible communications in 5G and beyond networks, through which a group of entities can establish chains of services between cross-operators/domains, with security and trustworthiness. One of the key obstacles to achieving generalized connectivity beyond 5G networks is the lack of automatized, efficient, and scalable models for establishing security and trust. In this vein, this article proposes a pre-standardization approach for reputation-based trust models beyond 5G. To this end, we have realized a thorough review of the literature to match trust standardization approaches. An abstract set of requirements and key performance indicators has been extracted, and some pre-standardization recommendations proposed to fulfill essential conditions of future networks and to cover the lack of common trust and reputation models beyond 5G.

D. 19,1,23 Iulianus libro 13 digestorum. Read as a contribution to the classical doctrine of id quod interest, D. 19,1,23 Iul. 13 dig. has often puzzled the reader. Julian seems to overcompensate a buyer for no good reason, only to be brusquely corrected by Marcellus. There may be a non-trivial explanation for Julian’s reasoning, especially once the palingenetical context is taken into account.

Major new multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) have entered into force in 2016, including the Paris Agreement (PA) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) with nationally determined contributions (NDCs) for greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction, the Kigali Amendment (KA) to the Montreal Protocol with a phase-down schedule for HFC production and use in all countries as well as the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) under the International Civil Aviation Organization, an offset mechanism for GHG emissions. Regarding climate change mitigation, these MEAs are implicitly and explicitly linked to each other. However, the interaction effects between them have not yet been studied. We apply document analysis to assess the following question: how does the MEA interplay impact the scope and effectiveness of international market-based climate policy instruments defined in Article 6 of the PA (Paris Mechanisms) regarding NDC achievement? The Paris Mechanisms can generate early reductions in HFCs that lower the KA baseline and thus the entire phase-down schedule, thereby generating long-term GHG mitigation. Reduction in HFC-23—a large, controversial source of carbon credits under the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)—is now mandated through the KA and thus no longer available for international market mechanisms. If it accepts CDM credits predating 2020, CORSIA will not generate demand for emission units generated by the Article 6 mechanisms and thus not impact their effectiveness. Otherwise, CORSIA demand for Article 6 credits enhances effectiveness, provided that ‘double counting’ of credits is prevented through corresponding adjustments.

ZusammenfassungMit der Einführung des Risikoorientierten Sanktionenvollzugs (ROS) in der Schweiz sollen Rückfälle größtmöglich reduziert und die Ressourcen der Straftäter*innen gestärkt werden. Um diesem Anspruch gerecht zu werden, wird ROS fortlaufend evaluiert und weiterentwickelt. Nun soll eine konzipierte Veränderungsmessung überprüft werden, die ROS erweitern und die Abbildung von Veränderungen transparenter und nachvollziehbarer machen könnte. Neben den demografischen und Rückfalldaten werden diverse personen- und umweltbezogene Aspekte herangezogen. Konkret wird anhand von 302 Fällen betrachtet, ob im Verlauf der Sanktion eine Verbesserung der personen- und umweltbezogenen Aspekte stattgefunden hat. Anschließend wird analysiert, ob Verbesserungen der personen- und umweltbezogenen Variablen Zusammenhänge zur Rückfälligkeit aufweisen. Ebenso wird betrachtet, ob eine gute Passung von forensischem Bedarf und juristischen Rahmenbedingungen mit den Variablen sowie der Rückfälligkeit zusammenhängt. Des Weiteren wird anhand von Vergleichsdaten aus einer Stichprobe vor der Einführung von ROS die Wirksamkeit von ROS in Bezug auf Rückfälligkeit untersucht. Die untersuchten Bereiche weisen teilweise signifikante Ergebnisse auf. So deuten die Befunde darauf hin, dass die Veränderungsmessung grundsätzlich eine sinnvolle Ergänzung im ROS-Prozess darstellt. Außerdem kann die Wirksamkeit von ROS bestätigt werden. Abschließend werden Limitationen diskutiert und ein Ausblick gegeben.

Under conditions of growing interconnectedness of the global economy, more and more stakeholders are exposed to risks and costs resulting from business activities that are neither regulated nor compensated for by means of national governance. The changing distribution of risks poses a threat to the legitimacy of business firms that normally derive their legitimacy from operating in compliance with the legal rules of democratic nation states. However, during the process of globalization, the regulatory power of nation states has been weakened and many production processes have been shifted to states with weak regulatory frameworks where businesses operate outside the reach of the democratic nation state. As a result, business firms have to address the various legitimacy challenges of their operations directly and cannot rely upon the legitimacy of their regulatory environment. These developments challenge the dominant approach to corporate governance that regards shareholders as the only stakeholder group in need of special protection due to risks not covered by contracts and legal regulations. On the basis of these considerations, we argue for a democratization of corporate governance structures in order to compensate for the governance deficits in their regulatory environment and to cope with the changing allocation of risks and costs. By way of democratic involvement of various stakeholders, business firms may be able to mitigate the redistribution of individual risk and address the resulting legitimacy deficits even when operating under conditions of regulatory gaps and governance failure.