Search

奈良時代の疫病対策 文献史料が伝える疫病対策 考古資料が伝える疫病対策 呪符木簡

マクニール・モデルとは、集団間に支配・被支配が成立する背景を、疫病への免疫力格差によって説明する理論型である。本稿では、この理論を踏まえつつ、日本古代における疫病の構造的理解を目指す。日本古代の疫病には大きく分けて二つのタイプがある。一つは、国外からの伝播ではないかと推定される大宰府発生の疫病である。このタイプは、非常に高い致死性をもつが、発生は稀である。もう一つは、京から伝播するタイプの疫病で、比較的致死性は低いが、頻繁に発生し、京から徒歩一〇日圏内からやや西に偏る範囲に伝播する。両タイプとも、飢饉の結果として発生するだけでなく、さらなる飢饉の誘因ともなった。奈良時代以前の疫病は、大きな被害を被った場合でも、一定期間内に復興が見込めたが、平安時代の最初期、復興に遅延が生じるようになった結果、疫癘間発という疫病の連鎖が発生し、律令国家の掌握する人口と田地に大きな損害を与えた。, According to William H. McNeil the determining factor separating the rulers and the ruled is the gap in their level ofimmunity to pestilence or epidemics. This gap is the product ofthe discrepancies between the population and the degree ofits contact with outsiders. It has been claimed that because there was little contact with the outside world in ancient Japan, immunity to pestilence was weak and the society was subject to severe outbreaks ofharmf ul pestilence. Certainly, it is true that the view that invasive pestilence originated from abroad was deeply rooted in Japan, and religious rites were developed to protect the capital from disease. In addition, it is highly likely that the epidemics that struck in Tenpyô 7 and 9 (735 and 737) did spread from abroad, and were responsible for a remarkable level of harm seldom seen in the history ofepidemics in Japan. However, it was generally the case that epidemics in ancient Japan were centered instead on the capital and spread from there. The area within tendays ofwalking from the capital (however tending toward the west) was the typical target area. And in addition, when an epidemic struck, areas within the capital with the greatest population density were severely struck, and the Kinki region around the capital was struck next. Generally speaking, it has often been the case that outbreaks of an epidemic are triggered by lowered levels ofresistance due to famine, but in the case of ancient Japan, it was frequently the case that famine brought on epidemic instead. Because ancient Japan operated on the principles ofan agricultural society, paddy land where rice could be grown was invested with the greatest share oflabor, and when a labor shortage was caused by an epidemic, the paddies were left to ruin and further famine and epidemic ensued. In ancient Japan the harmful effects of famine and epidemics were closely linked. Even so, after the outbreak of an epidemic during the years roughly corresponding to the Nara period, the fixed level of the population was usually maintained after recovery was achieved. Some theories suppose that a great population increase occurred in the meantime However, from the beginning of the 9th century, there was a slowdown in the recovery rate following the outbreak of an epidemic. Even in the years ofabundant crops recovery from epidemics continued to be incomplete. In the 30 years before and after the turn of the century outbreaks of pestilence struck frequently throughout Japan and there was no stopping the series of famines and epidemics. As a result, population decline and ruined fields greatly increased. Because the populace and paddy lands were the fundamental capital for the ritsuryo-governed state ofancient Japan, one can say that the very foundations of the ritsuryo state itselfwere being undermined by the frequent outbreak of epidemics. Furthermore, as ifoperating in concert with these, in the first halfofthe 9th century, it was often the case that local officials did not provide accurate reports ofthe outbreaks ofthese epidemics. In order to reduce the amount of tax collected by the central government, local officials would attempt to over-estimate the damage caused by an epidemic. The central government at first tried to strictly restrain this tactic, but by the middle of the 9th century it had lost its fervor to police local officials. The rise ofthe risk ofepidemic due the concentration ofthe populace shook the foundations of the society but also had the effect of increasing mobility. As the McNeil model views regions with concentrated populations with many interactions as naturally dominant, it is an argument characterized by anticipated harmony, but given concentrated disturbance of the dominant area by epidemics, it is necessary to reevaluate the historical significance possessed by pestilence.

The rituals that worshiped those who have unnatural deaths were held in national rituals of East Asian countries. Among them, the note of "六厲之礼" was annotated to the oldest record. It has not been considered yet what kind of ritual it was. Therefore, this paper first analyzes the relationship between "五事", "五気" and "五行の沴", and reveals the origin of "六沴" and "六厲之礼" that it points to "六沴之礼". Also, after an examination of the disaster records and Wu-hsing Chih, the recognition of plague in the Great Planbased calamity can be seen that because of its indirectness and multiple occurrence, plague has not been regarded as much as other calamity. And its position was ambiguous. In conclusion, in the Great Plan-based theories, the possibility of using six kinds of illness as one idea, the "六厲", was low., 文部科学省グローバルCOEプログラム 関西大学文化交渉学教育研究拠点, ［東アジアの歴史と動態］

This work looks at a relation of ancient Japan's and China's ideas of ritual centering on rei. The etiquette that was inseparable from law should have been transmitted with Chinese legal codes, but the expression wasn't always limited to the legal codes text. Especially in the case of the ideas of ritual, It was considered that fixed change occurred due to the difference in the consept of ghost and god between the two countries. And after examinating of records about rei, it was found that there were rei of the spirit who brought an epidemic and rei of the ghost who had no heir in the ancient China. New development of beliefs to rei in the late of Han Dynasty and the Six Dynasty was a result that these two kinds of rei were connected under the condition of the deaths in hatred. That's the customs which worship the vindictive spirit who was a concrete person to a god. These customs can be considered to have an impact on Japan. In addition, This work also looked at the first Goryō ceremony and subsequent Goryō ceremony and pointed out that the origins of both were different, and speculated that the former possibly imitated Chinese ritual of rei for political purposes., 文部科学省グローバルCOEプログラム 関西大学文化交渉学教育研究拠点, 松浦章教授古稀記念号, [研究ノート]

The first Goryō-e ceremony （a ceremony held to appease evil gods and the spirits of the dead） was held during the Heian period in 863. Subsequent Goryō-e ceremonies underwent significant changes, eventually resulting in the spirit that was the focus of ritual appeasement in the original Goryō-e being replaced by a new spirit known as Ekijin. There has been much previous research looking at the origins of this change. This work looks at a possible link between the Chinese deity known as Karakami, mentioned in the Shunki, and the Japanese deity Ekijin. From this link it can be seen that Ekijin was originally a foreign deity. Also, after an examination of records from the Nara to Heian periods, it can be seen that the concept of plagues introduced during the Tenpyō period from foreign sources deeply influenced Japanese beliefs surrounding plague and the Goryō-e ceremony. The new beliefs imported from China share a common concept with that of the original Goryō-e ceremony, namely the idea of rei. This provided a basis for the acceptance of the new foreign beliefs, which eventually resulted in Ekijin becoming the main subject of appeasement. In conclusion, foreign ideas about plague influenced not only ideas about Ekijin, but were also assimilated into the Goryō-e belief system., 東アジアの思想と構造

Higan Sugi Made (To the Equinox and Beyond) written by Soseki NATSUME (1867-1916) is a serialized novel that appeared in the Asahi Newspaper from New Year’s Day to April in 1912. Soseki’s newspaper novels are divided into the early trilogy, Sanshiro, Sorekara (And Then), and Mon (The Gate), and the late trilogy, Higan Sugi Made, Kojin (The Wayfarer), and Kokoro (Heart). Between the early and late trilogies, Soseki had a near-death experience called “Syuzenji no Taikan.” Higan Sugi Made, the first work in the late trilogy, is important since it introduces a method for a series of short stories that Soseki tried throughout the late trilogy.13; I examine the historical significance of Higan Sugi Made in the 20th century. There are sources for Higan Sugi Made which have never before been pointed out, and in the first part of this article I focus on the three young men in relationship to these sources. In particular, I analyze Higan Sugi Made with a focus on Keitaro TAGAWA. Although he was a romantic young man who yearns adventure such as managing a rubber plantation, he gave up his dream to make a living and got his position through the agency of Mr. TAGUCHI, an uncle of one of his friends, Ichizo SUNAGA. Keitaro, SUNAGA, and MORIMOTO, who lives in the same boarding house and tells Keitaro about his unique experience, all promote Romanticism over adventure, love, and wealth.13; The second part of this article explores the relationship between The Dynamiter (1886) written by Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) and Fanny Osbourne (1840-1914) and Higan Sugi Made. Soseki claimed that Stevenson was his favorite writer (25:153), and he collected 11 books written by Stevenson including New Arabian Nights, More New Arabian Nights .The Dynamiter, and The Master of Ballantrae which influenced Kojin (Sato 2011). I point out how Soseki borrows not only various expressions from The Dynamiter but also its the basic structure to use in his adventure of three young men who solve a double mystery.13; In the third section of the article, I discuss how Soseki invites readers to Higan Sugi Made. By creating a private space and public space, newspaper places a boundary region such as human interest stories between them. In part four, I discuss the importance of his framing of that work, especially how Higan Sugi Made is based on a series of short stories focusing on the death of Yoiko. In particular, I discuss how infection and unexplained sudden death frame the stories and explain how they serve as metaphors for twentieth century warfare that brings about meaningless accidental mass mortality.

Higan Sugi Made (To the Equinox and Beyond) written by Soseki NATSUME (1867-1916) is a serialized novel that appeared in the Asahi Newspaper from New Year’s Day to April in 1912. Soseki’s newspaper novels are divided into the early trilogy, Sanshiro, Sorekara (And Then), and Mon (The Gate), and the late trilogy, Higan Sugi Made, Kojin (The Wayfarer), and Kokoro (Heart). Between the early and late trilogies, Soseki had a near-death experience called “Syuzenji no Taikan.” Higan Sugi Made, the first work in the late trilogy, is important since it introduces a method for a series of short stories that Soseki tried throughout the late trilogy.I examine the historical significance of Higan Sugi Made in the 20th century. There are sources for Higan Sugi Made which have never before been pointed out, and in the first part of this article I focus on the three young men in relationship to these sources. In particular, I analyze Higan Sugi Made with a focus on Keitaro TAGAWA. Although he was a romantic young man who yearns adventure such as managing a rubber plantation, he gave up his dream to make a living and got his position through the agency of Mr. TAGUCHI, an uncle of one of his friends, Ichizo SUNAGA. Keitaro, SUNAGA, and MORIMOTO, who lives in the same boarding house and tells Keitaro about his unique experience, all promote Romanticism over adventure, love, and wealth.The second part of this article explores the relationship between The Dynamiter (1886) written by Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) and Fanny Osbourne (1840-1914) and Higan Sugi Made. Soseki claimed that Stevenson was his favorite writer (25:153), and he collected 11 books written by Stevenson including New Arabian Nights, More New Arabian Nights .The Dynamiter, and The Master of Ballantrae which influenced Kojin (Sato 2011). I point out how Soseki borrows not only various expressions from The Dynamiter but also its the basic structure to use in his adventure of three young men who solve a double mystery.In the third section of the article, I discuss how Soseki invites readers to Higan Sugi Made. By creating a private space and public space, newspaper places a boundary region such as human interest stories between them. In part four, I discuss the importance of his framing of that work, especially how Higan Sugi Made is based on a series of short stories focusing on the death of Yoiko. In particular, I discuss how infection and unexplained sudden death frame the stories and explain how they serve as metaphors for twentieth century warfare that brings about meaningless accidental mass mortality.

論文(Article), 日本列島の中では、文献史資料に依って確認を取ることが可能な古代以降の時期に限定してみても、幾多の自然災害―気象災害、地震災害や津波、火山噴火、そして伝染病の蔓延等に見舞われ、その度に住民等は苦しめられて来た。しかし、人々はそれらを乗り越えながら、現在に至る日本社会を構築して来たのである。そこで、本稿では、日本古代に編纂された記録（正史）である「日本書紀」や「続日本紀」を中心素材として、これらが編纂された8世紀当時の人々の認識として、人為的な災害である疫病がどの様な日本語のスタイルで示されていたのかを検証し、それを以って当時の人々に依る伝染病に拘わる災害観や災害対処の文化論を探って行く作業を試みた。, application/pdf

Article, 信州大学人文社会科学研究 5: 62-78(2011)

The epidemics had been prevalent during the Nara period in Japan. Among these infectious diseases, some types were originated from Japan and some new ones were imported from the Asian continents. This thesis is a research which based on the records of epidemics written in Shoku-Nihongi. According to epidemiological analysis, the time and space distributions of epidemics during the Nara period are made clear. Based on these distributions, the contagious patterns of the diseases came from the Asian continents, and the prevalent space of the inherent infections is demonstrated.

本稿において、我々は疫学の研究領域に文化人類学がどのように貢献してきたかについて２つの歴史的事例を検討する。次に今日の疫学における最大の実践的課題のひとつであるHIV感染症に対して、文化人類学者の挑戦について紹介する。

浮世絵の一つに｢疱瘡絵｣と称されるものがある。疱瘡絵はかなり特殊な浮世絵である。疱瘡(天然痘)にかかった病人への見舞い品として贈られたり、病人の部屋に貼られるという用途に限って用いられた浮世絵である。また、疱瘡絵は、全面、濃淡二種の赤色のみで摺刷されているという、際立った特徴を持つ。, 従来、疱瘡絵は、芸術的情趣に乏しいものとして、美術史の立場からはあまり研究がなされてこなかった。しかし、江戸時代の日本人の疱瘡についての観念や習俗を知る上では、貴重な資料となる。本稿は、疱瘡をめぐる民俗の一端として、疱瘡絵を研究することを目的としたものである。, 近年、H・O・ローテルムンドが、疱瘡絵に描かれている図像や画賛を分析して、日本人の疱瘡観の一端を鮮やかに解明した。本稿では、今までの研究成果を整理した後に、ローテルムンドが、ほとんど検討していなかった疱瘡絵の使用の実態、すなわち、疱瘡絵の購入者・購入意図、贈られた人々の取り扱い、疱瘡絵の普及状態などを、具体的な資料に基づいて叙説することを目指した。また、疱瘡絵の誕生の経緯とその出自についても検討を加えた。本稿で明らかになったことは次のとおりである。, １． 疱瘡絵は、専ら疱瘡見舞いに用いられた特異な浮世絵であり、その誕生からして、疱瘡見舞客の購入を当て込んで、商品開発され売り出された可能性が高い。, ２． また、疱瘡絵には護符的な用途と病床の疱瘡小児のなぐさみ・弄びものとしての用途があったことを指摘した。そして、病気回復後すぐに放棄されるという、これまた特殊な末路を辿る浮世絵であった。, 最後に疱瘡絵の発生についていくつかの推量を示した。疱瘡絵の発生の時期に関しては、従来の説よりも四〇～五〇年は遡ることを資料によって明らかにした。また、疱瘡絵が誕生するに当たって影響を与えたと思われる浮世絵の系統としては、鍾馗の図や芝居絵・玩具絵・大津絵などが想定できることを示した。

I はじめに : 本稿の目的は, 最近のインド社会経済史研究における一つの新しい動向を紹介することにある。ただし, 忠実な紹介というよりは, 私見も大いに交えつつ筆者自身の研究課題を探る作業でもある。この研究動向自体いまだマイナーな動きに過ぎないかもしれない。しかしながら, この研究動向は将来に向けて様々な可能性を秘めているように思われる。……

日本に吹く主要な季節風は二つある。ひとつは冬季に吹く北ないし西北からの季節風であり、もうひとつは夏季の南ないし東南からの季節風である。不意に激しく吹く西北の季節風は、西日本では「あなし」とよばれてきた。「あな」はこの場合は恐怖をも含む感嘆詞であり、「し」は息であり風である。古代、漁師も農夫もこの「あなし」を怖れた。, しかも、この風は疫病をもたらすとも考えられ、だから疫病は風病、風の病ともよばれていた。七世紀、飛鳥に宮廷を置いた天武天皇は龍田で風祭を行ったが、龍田は飛鳥の西北に位置する。奈良時代および平安時代、不安定な政治情勢を背景に凶作と疫病の蔓延が繰り返されたとき、これらの現象は、権力の座から追い落とされて死んだ者たちの怨霊の所為にされた。怨霊は祀られねばならなかった。たとえば京都では上御霊社、下御霊社が建てられたし、御霊会が祇園で行われた。最も有名な御霊は菅原道真の怨霊だが、この御霊はこの両社に他の御霊たちとともに、また北野には単独で祀られている。, 古代、朝廷は出雲地方を怖れていた。おそらくこれが、出雲が黄泉と結び付けられた主な理由である。その出雲は飛鳥や奈良から西北の方角に位置する。, 祇園社、下御霊社、上御霊社は一直線上にある。そして上御霊社の近くから出雲路が始まる。道真の御霊の祀られた北野は祇園の西北の方向にあり、この方向も出雲を目指す。朝廷およびその周辺の人々にとって、死者の怨念は黄泉から戌亥（西北）の風に乗って都を襲ったのである。