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The chemical composition of raw oat grain is responsible for the high dietary value and health-promoting properties of oat products. This article presents the results of a study investigating the biofortification of grain in two oat genotypes-hulless and hulled-through agronomic treatments: chemical plant protection against weeds and fungi and mineral nitrogen fertilization. The applied agronomic treatments induced different changes in the fatty acid profiles, content of tocopherols, macronutrients, and micronutrients in the grain of hulled and hulless oats. Plant health contributed to higher concentrations of unsaturated fatty acids and potassium in oat grain. In turn, nitrogen fertilization decreased the content of unsaturated fatty acids, potassium, and copper and increased the content of saturated fatty acids, calcium, and manganese in oat grain. At the same time, agronomic treatments reduced the tocopherol content of the grain, which implies that the nutritional value of oats increases in the absence of chemical plant protection agents. The correlations between the content of desirable chemical compounds and agronomic treatments were stronger in hulless oat grain, which may suggest that the agronomic modification of oat-based foods is more effective in this genotype. The content of exogenous alpha-linoleic acid C18:3 n-3 and alpha-tocopherol was higher in grain harvested from the control treatment (without chemical plant protection), whereas grain harvested from fully protected treatments accumulated more essential gamma-linolenic acid C18:3 n-6. The content of gamma-tocopherol and copper in oat grain was higher in the absence of nitrogen fertilization.

Hemp ( Cannabis sativa L.) seeds are an interesting raw material for malting regarding its relatively high bioactive compounds concentration and proven advantageous properties in different food products and dietary supplements. In the first stage of the study, important seeds properties relevant to the malting process including moisture content, seed viability, and water absorption capacity were determined. However, a few parameters determining the seeds' usability for malt preparation, such as germination ability and water sensitivity, are different in comparison to typical malting raw materials such as barley or wheat. However, they make it possible to obtain high-quality hemp malt. In the next stage of research, spectroscopic and chromatographic analyses, including measurements of antioxidant activity and protein separation by SEC-HPLC, were conducted. The results showed that the malting process improved the total antioxidant potential of hemp seeds by 15%, leading to an increase in the concentration of lower molecular weight proteins and oligopeptides-below molecular mass of 10 kDa-responsible for this high antioxidant activity. The processing of hemp seeds reduced the phytate content while increasing phosphate fractions with fewer phosphate groups, which may have a beneficial effect on nutritional value. These results suggest that malting hemp seeds needs optimalization of the process but can increase its nutritional value as a promising raw material in the food industry.

Insects are increasingly being considered as an attractive source of protein that can cater to the growing demand for food around the world and promote the development of sustainable food systems. Commercial insect farms have been established in various countries, mainly in Asia, but in Europe, edible insects have not yet emerged as a viable alternative to traditional plant- and animal-based sources of protein. In this paper, we present an interdisciplinary overview of the technological aspects of edible insect farming in the context of the EU regulations and marketing. Based on a review of the literature, we have concluded that edible insect farming can be a viable business sector that significantly contributes to the overall sustainability of food systems if the appropriate regulations are introduced and food safety standards are guaranteed. However, the success of the edible insect industry also requires consumer acceptance of entomophagy, which is rather low in Western societies. Therefore, targeted marketing strategies are indispensable to support the implementation of edible insect programs.

Copper (Cu) is an essential element involved in various metabolic processes in plants, but at concentrations above the threshold level, it becomes a potential stress factor. The effects of two different cytokinins, kinetin (KIN) and 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), on chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters, stomatal responses and antioxidation mechanisms in castor ( Ricinus communis L.) under Cu 2+ toxicity was investigated. Ricinus communis plants were exposed to 80 and 160 μM CuSO 4 added to the growth medium. Foliar spraying of 15 μM KIN and BAP was carried out on these seedlings. The application of these cytokinins enhanced the tissue water status, chlorophyll contents, stomatal opening and photosynthetic efficiency in the castor plants subjected to Cu 2+ stress. The fluorescence parameters, such as Fm, Fv/Fo, Sm, photochemical and non-photochemical quantum yields, energy absorbed, energy trapped and electron transport per cross-sections, were more efficiently modulated by BAP application than KIN under Cu 2+ toxicity. There was also effective alleviation of reactive oxygen species by enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidation systems, reducing the membrane lipid peroxidation, which brought about a relative enhancement in the membrane stability index. Of the various treatments, 80 µM CuSO 4 + BAP recorded the highest increase in photosynthetic efficiency compared to other cytokinin treatments. Therefore, it can be concluded that BAP could effectively alleviate the detrimental effects of Cu 2+ toxicity in cotyledonary leaves of R. communis by effectively modulating stomatal responses and antioxidation mechanisms, thereby enhancing the photosynthetic apparatus' functioning.

Satureja khuzistanica Jamzad is a valuable and endemic medicinal plant. Boron and zinc are essential elements for the vegetative and reproductive growth of plants and have significant effects on yield, essential oil composition and the seed production of plants. To investigate the effects of the foliar application of zinc and boron on the growth, yield, seed production and phytochemical properties of S. khuzistanica , a study was conducted in a factorial experiment with three replicates in two consecutive years based on a randomized complete block design. The foliar application of boron (B) at three concentrations (control or distilled water, 0.4% and 0.8% as H 3 BO 3 ) and zinc (Zn) at three concentrations (control or distilled water, 0.3% and 0.6% as ZnSO 4 ) was carried out. Our results showed that the foliar application of B resulted in a significant increase in the fresh and dry weights of plants, the dry weight of stems, drug yield, seed yield, seed germination and 1000-seed weight. At the same time, the application of B resulted in a significant decrease in seed emptiness. The fresh and dry weights of plants, drug yield, seed yield, 1000-seed weight and seed germination were also significantly improved by Zn foliar spraying compared to the control. Application of 0.8% B resulted in a significant decrease in seed emptiness by 14.16% and 22.37%, as compared to the control. The foliar spraying of B and Zn improved the total phenolic content, the essential oil content and the yield and antioxidant activity of S. khuzistanica . Moreover, B application generally concentrated more carvacrol in the essential oil (in the first experimental year). In contrast, no significant differences were observed between Zn treatments in carvacrol content and total flavonoids. The use of several microelements, such as B and Zn, could improve both the quantity and quality of S. khuzistanica . Additionally, improvement of seed set and seed quality by the foliar spraying of Zn and B may be useful for growing plants in arid and semi-arid areas.

How agricultural ecosystems adapt to climate change is one of the most important issues facing agronomists at the turn of the century. Understanding agricultural ecosystem responses requires assessing the relative shift in climatic constraints on crop production at regional scales such as the temperate zone. In this work we propose an approach to modeling the growth, development and yield of Triticum durum Desf. under the climatic conditions of north-eastern Poland. The model implements 13 non-measurable parameters, including climate conditions, agronomic factors, physiological processes, biophysical parameters, yield components and biological yield (latent variables), which are described by 33 measurable predictors as well as grain and straw yield (manifest variables). The agronomic factors latent variable was correlated with nitrogen fertilization and sowing density, and biological yield was correlated with grain yield and straw yield. An analysis of the model parameters revealed that a one unit increase in agronomic factors increased biological yield by 0.575. In turn, biological yield was most effectively determined by climate conditions (score of 60-62) and biophysical parameters (score of 60-67) in the 2nd node detectable stage and at the end of heading. The modeled configuration of latent and manifest variables was responsible for less than 70% of potential biological yield, which indicates that the growth and development of durum wheat in north-eastern Europe can be further optimized to achieve high and stable yields. The proposed model accounts for local climate conditions and physiological processes in plants, and it can be implemented to optimize agronomic practices in the cultivation of durum wheat and, consequently, to expand the area under T. durum to regions with a temperate climate., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

To investigate the importance of light on healing and acclimatization, in the present study, grafted watermelon seedlings were exposed to darkness (D) or light, provided by blue (B), red (R), a mixture of R (68%) and B (RB), or white (W; 35% B, 49% intermediate spectra, 16% R) LEDs for 12 days. Survival ratio, root and shoot growth, soluble carbohydrate content, photosynthetic pigments content, and photosynthetic performance were evaluated. Seedling survival was not only strongly limited in D but the survived seedlings had an inferior shoot and root development, reduced chlorophyll content, and attenuated photosynthetic efficiency. RB-exposed seedlings had a less-developed root system. R-exposed seedlings showed leaf epinasty, and had the smallest leaf area, reduced chlorophyll content, and suppressed photosynthetic apparatus performance. The R-exposed seedlings contained the highest amount of soluble carbohydrate and together with D-exposed seedlings the lowest amount of chlorophyll in their scions. B-exposed seedlings showed the highest chlorophyll content and improved overall PSII photosynthetic functioning. W-exposed seedling had the largest leaf area, and closely resembled the photosynthetic properties of RB-exposed seedlings. We assume that, during healing of grafted seedlings monochromatic R light should be avoided. Instead, W and monochromatic B light may be willingly adopted due to their promoting effect on shoot, pigments content, and photosynthetic efficiency.

Plant materials used in the production of pig feed are frequently contaminated with mycotoxins. T-2 toxin is a secondary metabolite of selected Fusarium species, and it can exert a harmful influence on living organisms. Most mycotoxins enter the body via the gastrointestinal tract, and they can modulate the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) function. However, little is known about the influence of low T-2 toxin doses on GALT. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of T-2 toxin administered at 50% of the lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) on the percentage of CD2+ T cells, CD4+ T helper cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T cells, CD4+CD8+ double-positive T cells, TCRγδ+ cells, CD5+CD8- B1 cells, and CD21+ B2 cells, and the secretion of proinflammatory (IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-12/23p40, IL-17A), anti-inflammatory, and regulatory (IL-4, IL-10, TGF-β) cytokines in the porcine ileal wall. The results of the study revealed that T-2 toxin disrupts the development of tolerance to food antigens by enhancing the secretion of proinflammatory and regulatory cytokines and decreasing the production of anti-inflammatory TGF-β. T-2 toxin triggered the cellular response, which was manifested by an increase in the percentage of CD8+ T cells and a decrease in the percentage of B2 and Tγδ lymphocytes.

Grain of the highest hardness was produced from durum wheat grown without the use of growth regulator, at the lowest sowing density (350 seeds m-2) and nitrogen fertilization dose of 80 kg ha-1. The highest values L* and b* were determined in the grain of wheat cultivated without additional agrotechnical measures (growth regulator and nitrogen fertilization). Study results, supported by correlation analysis, indicated that high-quality grain with desired flour quality parameters (level of: FER ≈ 64%; FPS ≈ 98%; L* ≈ 92) can be produced from spring durum wheat grown without the growth regulator and at 80 kg·ha-1 nitrogen fertilization. Additionally, this variant of applied cultivation system can reduce costs of durum wheat production and contamination of the natural environment., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.