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On the one hand, the European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is the tree of the future due to ongoing climate changes, on the other hand, there are questions about its expansion and economic use as a replacement for the declining Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.). This literature review examines 140 studies summarizing basic research on beech in the context of climate change. As a climax tree species, beech is becoming dominant again in parts of its original range at the middle and higher altitudes of Central Europe, following spruce. It is a shade-loving species that can thrive in various types of mixed forest stands. To cultivate beech, close-to-nature methods, shelterwood, or selection management are optimal. The occurrence of the beech seed year is influenced by factors such as precipitation, temperature, drought, and air pollution. Although beech is generally considered resistant to abiotic and biotic factors, it often needs protection against hoofed game browsing in the earliest stages of development. As climate change progresses, it is essential to cultivate beech in areas rich in precipitation and nutrients where it can thrive even under more extreme conditions. In optimal conditions, beech has shown intensive regeneration in recent years, aggressively displacing other tree species. However, with insufficient precipitation and prolonged periods of drought, beech loses its vigor, production, and ability to compete. For adaptation to climate change, it is recommended to select appropriate beech provenance, promote natural regeneration, and cultivate structurally differentiated stands through positive-selection thinning from above.

The impacts of climate change on forest stands are manifested in different ways and intensity. Changes in the species composition of forest stands due to the different tolerance of forest species to the effects of climate change are one of the consequences too. In this context, introduced tree species are often mentioned as a possible replacement for dying autochthonous species. Of the deciduous species, it is mainly northern red oak. The aim of this paper is to compare selected quantitative (number of trees, basal area, merchantable volume, basal area increment and volume increment) and qualitative (crop trees) characteristics in one stand of the northern red oak at the age of 54 years and in two stands of durmast oak (age 57 and 58 years) in comparable site conditions. Achieved results showed higher values in all investigated quantitative parameters in the northern red oak stand compared to durmast oak stands. The merchantable volume in the northern red oak stand was 473 m3 per hectare in the tended subplots and 742 m3 ha–1 in the control ones. On the subplots with durmast oak, it was only from 228 to 289 m3 ha–1 in the subplots with thinning and 226 to 357 m3 ha–1 in the control areas. The same results were obtained for the category of crop trees. It means 230 m3 ha–1 for the northern red oak and 28 to 121 m3 ha–1 for durmast oak. The well-known fact about the higher quantitative production of the northern red oak compared to durmast oak was confirmed.

Introduced tree species have become increasingly important in the context of the ongoing climate change. This paper focuses on the dendrochronology of the most widespread introduced tree species in the British Isles – Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis [Bong.] Carr.) – in comparable soil conditions in England, Czechia, and Slovakia. The research aims to evaluate the growth dynamics and the influence of climatic factors on this tree species while comparing it with economically main tree species in Europe – Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.). Based on the analysis of 150 increment cores, the radial growth of Sitka spruce was on average 24.2% higher than that of Norway spruce. The highest increments in 52 to 62-year-old stands were achieved in England by both Sitka spruce (8.7 mm) and Norway spruce (7.0 mm). In terms of negative pointer years (NPYs), there was no difference in the number of years with a significantly low increment between the two species at any site. The lowest effect of climatic factors on growth was found in Czechia, while the highest was in England. Higher resistance to climate was found for Sitka compared to Norway spruce. In general, the main limiting factor for the growth was the lack of precipitation in the previous year’s vegetation season, or heavy frost in England. In Central Europe, due to low precipitation, Sitka spruce will not be a substantial introduced tree species in the future, but on suitable sites, it can achieve high production potential and play a significant role for increasing stand diversity in the face of climate change.

Black alder (Alnus glutinosa [L.] Gaertn.) is an important component of riparian and wetland ecosystems in Europe. However, data on the growth of this significant broadleaved tree species is very limited. Presently, black alder currently suffers from the pathogen Phytophthora and is particularly threatened by climate change. The objective of this study was to focus on the impact of climatic variables (precipitation, temperature, extreme climatic events) on the radial growth of alder across its geographic range during the period 1975–2015. The study of alder stands aged 46–108 years was conducted on 24 research plots in a wide altitude range (85–1015 m) in 12 countries of Europe and Asia. The most significant months affecting alder radial growth were February and March, where air temperatures are more significant than precipitation. Heavy frost and extreme weather fluctuations in the first quarter of the year were the main limiting factors for diameter increment. Within the geographical setting, latitude had a higher effect on radial growth compared to longitude. However, the most important variable concerning growth parameters was altitude. The temperature’s effect on the increment was negative in the lowlands and yet turned to positive with increasing altitude. Moreover, growth sensitivity to precipitation significantly decreased with the increasing age of alder stands. In conclusion, the growth variability of alder and the number of negative pointer years increased with time, which was caused by the ongoing climate change and also a possible drop in the groundwater level. Riparian alder stands well supplied with water are better adapted to climatic extremes compared to plateau and marshy sites.

Value production is one of the most important information for comparing different tree species composition and management strategies in forestry. Although the value production of forest stands is affected by various factors thinning can be considered as one of the most important one. This paper aims at the evaluation of qualitative and value production in mixed Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.), silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) stands, which were managed by crown thinning for a period of 44 to 50 years and/or left to self-development. More than 1,500 individual trees aged from 61 to 132 years from 15 subplots established in western part of the Low Tatras Mts. and the Great Fatra Mts. in Slovakia were assessed. The proportion of stems in the highest quality A (stem quality classes) reached a low percentage, i.e. 12% in beech, 28% in spruce and 13% in fir out of the number of evaluated trees. The percentage of the highest quality log classes (assortments I + II) of beech ranged from 0 to 23% and of coniferous ones from 2 to 12%. Regarding the management method used, this percentage accounted for 0.1 to 23% for plot with self-development, whereas in plots with tending it was from 1 to 23%. Value production of coniferous tree species was always higher compared to beech, regardless of the management method. Regarding individual tree species, we found the highest value production in fir (81.4 € m−3) and the lowest in beech (46.5 € m−3).

This review uses a case study based on an executed afforestation project to comprehensively describe the administrative procedure regarding afforestation of agricultural land in the Czech Republic, Central Europe. We consider the official proceedings for obtaining a permit to land-use change (i.e. changing the nature of land use and the mode of land use in the real estate cadastre) as a very complex and protracted procedure, which can substantially reduce the motivation of people to establish new forests. Therefore, we propose a simplification of the administration process of land-use change. The main idea is to make the procedure as simple as possible in those areas where afforestation is desirable, especially from the environmental point of view. It assumes the possibility of quick, precise and, if possible, automatic distinction whether the afforestation is suitable or not. The situation in the Czech Republic is compared with the surrounding Central-European countries: Poland and Slovakia. In these countries, the official procedure connected with afforestation seems to be rather less complicated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Impact of tending on dvelopment of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) pole timber stands was analysed using different variants of the free crown thinning, i.e. the original method developed in Slovakia at the end of 1950s. Four variants of this method were compared: (i) - the free crown thinning on the whole area, the method of promising trees, later the method of target trees at stand age of 58 years. (ii) - the free crown thinning on non-whole area, tending realised inside of growth space of target trees only, the method of target trees, salvage cutting on the whole area. (iii) - the free crown thinning on non-whole area, the method of promising trees (the method of target trees at stand age of 58 years) realised on circular plots with diameter 4 m and spacing 8 m (distance between centre of circular plots). (iv) - combined selective method, thinning from below and the free crown thinning by method of target trees was used by the first thinning, in next thinning only the free crown thinning on whole-area was used, method of target trees. The structure (diameter and height) of the stand, the quantitative production parameters had been observed for a period of 30 years. Small differences were found in diameter and height structure between the variant (iv) and other three ones. Comparison of quantitative production pointed out minimum differences in favour of the variant (iv) compared to the other ones. The same results were also obtained in the qualitative production, especially for selective quality (target trees).

The climate change has an adverse impact on tree species and forest stands. Different tree species tolerance and changes in tree species composition are considered as one of the climate change consequences. Th e paper deals with assessment and comparison of tree species composition and basal area increment in mixed (spruce-fi r-beech) stands, which were left to self-thinning during 45–55 years. Th e large-scale experimental basis of older thinning permanent research plots established, in the past, in mixed stands situated in the 5th and 6th altitudinal forest zone was used in the research. At the same time the detected changes were compared to long-range goal and tree species models specifi ed for a given forest type. The results showed increased proportion of beech and sycamore maple contrary to decreased share of fi r and spruce. At the same time, fir also recorded the highest percentage of loss by self-thinning. Th e comparison of the current tree species composition with the models showed slight differences in all areas in favour of spruce at the expense of beech. Similarly, the basal area increment of beech was the highest everywhere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the turn of the 1970s and 1980s, oak stands were affected by a tracheomycosis disease of fungal origin, known as the mass dieback of oaks. At present, the effects of climate change, especially drought, have also begun to affect oak stands. Suitable stand tending methods are considered to be one of the mitigation measures. This paper compares the 25-year development of the oak stand, which was established with different variants of tending. Quantitative characteristics (number of trees, basal area, merchantable volume, increment on basal area and volume, total production) were evaluated. The influence of tending was also monitored in relation to the development of crop trees. The results confirmed the highest values of quantitative parameters on control plots. It has been shown that heavy tending interventions in the early developmental stages of oak stands are less suitable compared to moderate interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Birch, as one of the pioneer species, is a part of the preparatory forest, especially aft er extensive calamities. In the 1970s and 1980s, it most oft en served as a substitute stand in connection with the widespread dieback of forests as a result of the effects of air pollution. In recent years, it has become increasingly important in relation to the impacts of climate change. Th is paper deals with the comparison of selected quantitative and qualitative characteristics of two mixed birch stands at the age of 59 years, having the production and spa-therapeutic function, over a 30-year period. Th e results showed higher values of quantitative parameters (a number of trees, basal area, and merchantable volume) in the plot with the spa-therapeutic function. Qualitative production was slightly worse in the plot with production function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper deals wiThevaluation of silver fir growThin the four experimental plots situated in more-less monospecific or mixed spruce, fir and beech stands in Slovakia. No interventions on the mentioned plots were carried out for the investigated period of 45 to 50 years. Comparison of height growThcourse and selected quantitative characteristics (current annual basal area increment, relation between current annual diameter increment and crown width) were found. The results showed substantial decrease of silver fir from 7% to 30% out of total basal area, whereas original proportion was found 21-51%. On the contrary, the highest share was registered on all plots for beech. Actually, on pure fir stand the proportion of this species increased during the investigated period. On the mentioned stand, the best height growThwas found in a consequence of the best site index, as well as the highest values of crown widThand basal area increment. The closest relation between crown widThand annual diameter increment was found on plots wiThthe lowest number of trees. Results suggested that fir proportion and its growThin mixed stands wiThspruce and beech was markedly influenced by the latter tree species, which is considered to be a strong competitor under the given ecological conditions.` [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper deals with assessment of the long-term experiment (45 years of investigation) in beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) stand with delayed tending started at stand age of 60 years. The research was performed on four partial plots by different methods of their management: (i) plot with heavy thinning from below (C degree according to the German forest research institutes from 1902), (ii) plot with the free crown thinning (thinning interval of 5 years), (iii) plot with the free crown thinning (thinning interval of 10 years) and (iv) control plot (with no thinning). From qualitative point of view, the best results according to the number of target (crop) trees were found on plots tended by the free crown thinning (thinning interval of 5 years), and the worst on plots with heavy thinning from below and/or plot with no tending (control plot). Consequently, the results showed lower number of target (crop) trees in comparison with our assumption and/or the model developed for beech stands in the past. On the other hand, from quantitative point of view, the best results were achieved on plot tended by heavy thinning from below, followed by the plot with the free crown thinning (thinning interval of 5 years). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]