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The aim of this study is to explore different profiles of parents in terms of their use of reward and praise as well as psychological control by using latent profile analysis (LPA). The data were collected from a sample of 661 parents living across Turkey through an online platform in the Spring of 2023. An atemporal cross-sectional research design was used to explore latent profiles of parents. Parents completed three scales: the parent reward scale, the parent praise scale, and psychological control-disrespect scale. Parents were profiled, based on their use of these three parenting tools. As a result of the LPA, three profiles emerged. They were identified as “High Controllers”, “Low Controllers” and “Autonomy Supporters”. As predicted, “High Controllers” use all these three tools, reward, praise, psychological control to a great extent. Similarly, “Low Controllers” use all three tools but to lesser extent. “Autonomy Supporters” use these three tools the least. The difference among these three profiles were further validated with the acknowledgement-of-feelings scale and the threats to punish scale. ANOVA revealed a significant difference among three groups. “High Controllers” were more likely to threaten to punish their children than “Low Controllers” and “Autonomy Supporters”. Similarly, Autonomy Supporters” were more likely to acknowledge their children’s feelings than “High Controllers” and “Low Controllers.” As predicted, these findings suggest that parents who use praise and reward are more likely to control their children psychologically, punish their children and less likely to acknowledge their children’s feelings. School leaders could utilize these findings to profile parents and develop more effective parental involvement program to promote autonomy supportive parenting style that do not rely on praise or reward.

Classroom management is an indispensable element in creating an effective learning environment. In a classroom with poor management, students cannot engage in the learning process and may experience anxiety. Consequently, equipping teachers with effective classroom management skills is among the responsibilities of school leaders. However, prior to offering professional development programmes, school leaders should first teachers’ use of rewards and praise as part of their classroom management tools. According to the Self-Determination Theory, although rewards and praise are effective in establishing discipline, they may not significantly enhance development or motivation. Therefore, it is imperative to measure how much rewards and praise teachers employ in their classrooms in a valid and reliable manner. To the best of our knowledge, no scale currently exists in the literature that measures this aspect. This research will be the first study to measure teachers' reward and praise behaviors. The research is conducted as a quantitative study using a descriptive survey model. In the initial round, a 25-item pilot form was administered to 465 teachers. The results of Exploratory Factor Analysis revealed a 13-item, 2-factor structure, explaining 76% of the total variance, named as "teacher praise behaviors" and "teacher reward behaviors," respectively. The reliability levels of the factor scores were found to be .87 and .92. In the second round, data were collected from 271 teachers using the 13-item form. Confirmatory Factor Analysis confirmed the 2-factor structure. To test concurrent validity, two scales were administered, and their relationships were presented as evidence of concurrent validity. In conclusion, the Teacher Reward and Praise Scale has been presented as a valid and reliable instrument for measuring teachers' behaviors in classroom management, available for researchers and practitioners' use.

Teacher leadership has recently gained significant attention in the literature since there is enough evidence that it leads to effective student outcomes. Therefore, many scholars study the antecedents of teacher leadership. This study investigates the impact of self-affirmation on teacher leadership beliefs through an experimental design. Self-affirmation, a well-established construct in psychological science, refers to participants' affirming their self-transcendent (e.g., empathy, justice, honesty) or self-enhancement (e.g., power, status, wealth) values through a writing exercise. In the experiment (n=221), participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: a self-transcendent value-affirmation group (STVA), a self-enhancement value-affirmation group (SEVA), or a control group. Participants in three groups wrote about their self-transcendent values, self-enhancement values or their meals and completed teacher leadership belief scale. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) demonstrated that the STVA group had significantly higher scores on teacher leadership belief scales compared to the SEVA and the control group. This finding suggests that affirming self-transcendent values can lead teachers to adopt leadership beliefs, which in turn is likely to affect their leadership behaviours. School leaders can incorporate self-affirmation exercises into professional development programmes to facilitate teacher leadership.

This study aims to examine the impact of self-esteem on teacher leadership beliefs in Türkiye through both correlational and experimental analyses since self-esteem is considered to be a crucial antecedent of leadership. The author conducts three separate studies with a sample size of 808. The first study (n = 237) uses correlational analyses (Spearman). The second study (n = 222) adopts a scenario-based, within-participants experimental design where the self-esteem level of teachers is manipulated. A paired t-test was used to analyze the data. The third study (n=349) employs a between-participants experimental design. ANOVA test was conducted to analyze the data. The correlational analysis of the first study found a positive relationship between self-esteem and teacher leadership (rho =0.35, p < 0.001). The second study revealed that participants perceived teachers with high self-esteem to be more likely to exercise leadership, t[subscript (221)] = 1.97, p < 0.01. The third study found that teachers who were primed to have high self-esteem were more likely to adopt leadership beliefs, F[subscript (2, 348)] = 3.91, p = 0.02. The result experimentally demonstrated that self-esteem is an important antecedent of teacher leadership. This study contributes to the literature on teacher leadership by providing a causal link between self-esteem and teacher leadership.