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International audience; Biathlon is a complex sport subjected to large performance variability. Among the environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, wind, snow conditions) susceptible to influence performance, altitude is likely a detrimental factor for skiing (i.e., due to decreased aerobic capacity) as well as for prone and/or—to a larger extent—standing shooting (i.e., due to altered postural control and increased ventilation) performances. The aim of the present study was therefore to analyze the influence of altitude on elite biathlon performance. The analysis comprised data extracted from the International Biathlon Union (IBU) website and included IBU World Cup, IBU Cup, IBU World Championships, and Olympic Winter Games events over 8 years from season 2009–2010 to 2016–2017. The research included sprint, individual, mass start, and pursuit competitions for both men and women (no relays). The event sites were divided into three different altitude ranges: 1400 m. Only the Top-30 of each race were recorded for both men and women, separately, and analyzed for skiing speed, prone, and standing shooting performances. The results show a detrimental effect of altitude (i.e., ∼3.0% between 1400 m) on shooting performance that was similar for men and women but without any statistical difference between prone and standing positions. Due to many other confounding factors not analyzed here (snow quality, course profile), the effect of altitude on skiing speed was unclear. Overall, as expected, elite biathlon performances are altered, even within the range of moderate altitudes of the IBU competitions (

International audience; The aims of this study were to ensure that the skating velocity describes a mono-exponential function in order to determine the reliability of radar-derived profiling results from skating sprint accelerations applying sprint running force-velocity assessment approach. Eleven young highly-trained female ice hockey players performed two 40-m skating sprints on two separate days to evaluate inter-trial and test-retest reliability. The velocity-time data recorded by a radar device was used to calculate the kinetics variables of the skating sprint acceleration: maximal theoretical force (F0), maximal theoretical velocity (V0), maximal theoretical power (Pmax) and the slope of the linear force-velocity relationship (SFV). SFV and SFVrel variables (the slope of the linear relationship between horizontal force relative to body mass and velocity) demonstrated ‘low’ to ‘moderate’ intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC). All other variables revealed ‘acceptable’ inter-trial and testretest reliability (ICC ≥ 0.75 and coefficient of variation [CV] ≤ 10%). Furthermore, test-retest reliability (ICC and CV) and sensitivity [Standard Error of Measurement (SEMs) ≤ Small Worthwhile Change (SWCs)] were higher when averaging the two trials compared to the best trial (40-m split time) only. These findings offer a promising and simple method to monitor training-induced changes in macroscopic mechanical variables of ice hockey skating performance.

The purpose of this study was to compare the game movement demands between professional club and senior international rugby union players. Data were obtained from 188 players from 4 professional club teams (Rabo Direct Pro12) and the affiliated international team during the 2014–15 season. Players were tracked by global positioning system (GPS) sampled at 10 Hz and were categorized into 6 different positional groups (front row forwards, FRF; second row forwards, SRF; back row forwards, BRF; half backs, HB; centres, C; outside backs, OB) and separated into playing standard (club vs. international level). Data on distance, distance per minute, high speed running, maximum velocity, sprint distance and efforts as well as repeated high-intensity locomotion efforts (RHILE) were collected. Significant effects (P

International audience; International elite Para swimmers form a large portion of the overall multi-medalist winning population. For the highest performing Para swimmers, world class performances were achieved across different strokes. The aim of this study was to quantify the level of involvement across different events and to examine this in relation to the level of performance. The performances in swimming speed of the top 100 females and males for both Para- and non-disabled swimmers were collected in 11 race events between 2009 and 2019 (4,400 performances for 307 Para females and 365 Para males, 605 non-disabled females, and 715 non-disabled males). We tallied the number of events in which each swimmer was involved. Swimmers were grouped according to the total number of race events in which they participated. Then the association between involvement and level of performance was investigated. Para swimmers with impairment from classes seven to 14 were involved in a range of race events across different strokes. The most common combination for both Para and non-disabled athletes was over similarly distanced races of the same stroke (50 and 100 m freestyle). The more race events in which Para swimmers involved, the higher the level of performance that was achieved. This trend can partially be explained by the less concentrated competition pool for Para swimmers compared to able-bodied swimmers. Para swimmers with minimal and no physical impairment perform in multiple race events more often than able-bodied swimmers. Fewer Para swimmers at the international level and a less concentrated competition pool could explain these differences.

Couderc, A, Gabbett, TJ, Piscione, J, Robineau, J, Peeters, A, Igarza, G, Thomas, C, Hanon, C, and Lacome, M. Repeated high-intensity effort activity in international male Rugby Sevens. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2018-Rugby Sevens is characterized by repeated high-intensity accelerations, sprinting, and collisions, commonly referred to as repeated high-intensity effort (RHIE) activity. Although repeated acceleration and sprinting activity of Rugby Sevens has been investigated, to date, no study has investigated the repeated running and collision activity of international Rugby Sevens during competitive events. In this study, 15 elite players competed in 44 matches during the HSBC World Sevens Series. Global positioning systems and match analysis software were used to quantify the frequency of repeated running and collision efforts. High acceleration (≥2.5 m·s), high speed (above maximal aerobic speed), sprint (above 85% of maximal sprint speed), and collision efforts (tackles, ruck, and contact) were considered as high-intensity effort activities. An RHIE bout was defined as 3 or more high-intensity efforts with less than 21 seconds recovery between efforts. The difference between positional groups (forward and backs) and first and second halves was compared using magnitude-based inferential statistics. One hundred twelve individual match observations were analyzed. On average, players performed 27 high-intensity effort events across the game. The distribution of high-intensity efforts included the following: 37% collisions, 34% accelerations, 27.5% high-velocity running, and 1.5% sprints. An average of 3.7 RHIE bouts was performed per player. The difference in high-intensity efforts and number of RHIE bouts performed were trivial/small when compared between first and second halves, and between forward and back positional groups. Repeated high-intensity effort bouts play an important role in the activity profile of elite Rugby Sevens players. This study could provide a framework for performance analysts and coaches to analyze match-related performance of elite Rugby Sevens players, taking into account both the high-intensity running and collision components of the game. Coaches should implement training interventions to ensure the maintenance of RHIE performance during competitive events.

Beard, A, Ashby, J, Chambers, R, Millet, GP, and Brocherie, F. Wales Anaerobic Test (WAT): Reliability and fitness profiles of international rugby union players. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2019-To provide strength and conditioning coaches a practical and evidence-based test for repeated-sprint ability (RSA) in rugby union players, this study assessed the relative and absolute test-retest reliability of the Wales Anaerobic Test (WAT) and its position-specific association with other fitness performance indices. Thirty-four players (forwards: n = 19; backs: n = 15) of the Welsh rugby union male senior national team performed the WAT (10 × 50-m distance, 25-30 seconds of passive recovery) twice within 4 days. Time for each repetition was recorded, with the best (WATBest) and total time (WATTT) retained for analysis. Relative (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC]) and absolute (SEM) reliability of the WAT indices were quantified. Furthermore, association (Pearson's product-moment correlations and stepwise backward elimination procedure) with other fitness performance indices (10- and 40-m sprinting times, 30-15 intermittent fitness test [30-15IFT] and the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 2 [YYIR2]) was investigated. Pooled values revealed "moderate" to "high" ICCs for WATBest (ICC = 0.89, p = 0.626) and WATTT (ICC = 0.95, p = 0.342). Good test sensitivity was reported for forwards and backs' WATTT (p > 0.101). Both WATBest and WATTT correlated with 10-m and 40-m sprinting times (r > 0.69, p < 0.001) as well as with 30-15IFT (r < -0.77, p < 0.001) and YYIR2 (r < -0.68, p < 0.001) for pooled values. The WAT proved to be a reliable and sensitive test to assess the rugby union specific RSA-related fitness of international players.

BACKGROUND The physical activity and playing actions performed during a soccer match vary according to player position. The aim of the present study was to analyze the recovery kinetics of cognitive performance, physical performance and subjective ratings after a competitive soccer match. METHODS Eight goalkeepers and eight outfield players played in the match with data collected before, 45 min, 24 h and 48 h after the match. Subjective ratings, Vienna Reaction Test (reaction time, motor time), Vienna Determination Test (number of stimuli, number of correct responses), squat jump, countermovement jump and 6-s sprint were analyzed. RESULTS No significant interaction between position and time was found for Vienna Reaction Test and Vienna Determination Test performance. No significant interaction between position and time was found for squat jump and countermovement jump but squat jump and countermovement jump significantly decreased (P

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a 16-day training camp at moderate altitude on running energetics and biomechanics in an elite female 3,000-m steeplechase athlete (personal best: 9 min 36.15 s). The 16-day intervention included living and training at 1,600 m altitude. A maximal incremental test was performed at sea level to determine the maximal oxygen uptake ( V ∙ O 2 max ). Before (pre-) and after (post-) intervention, the participant performed a specific training session consisting of 10 × 400 m with 5 hurdles with oxygen uptake ( V ∙ O 2 ), blood lactate, stride length and stride rate being measured. A video analysis determined take-off distance and landing around the hurdle (DTH and DLH), take-off velocity and landing around the hurdle (VTH and VLH), and the maximal height over the hurdle (MH). The results demonstrated that the mean V ∙ O 2 maintained during the ten 400 m trials represented 84-86% of V ∙ O 2 max and did not change from pre- to post-intervention (p = 0.22). Mean blood lactate measured on the 6 last 400-m efforts increased significantly (12.0 ± 2.2 vs. 17.0 ± 1.6 mmol.l-1; p < 0.05). On the other hand, post-intervention maximal lactate decreased from 20.1 to 16.0 mmol.l-1. Biomechanical analysis revealed that running velocity increased from 5.12 ± 0.16 to 5.49 ± 0.19 m.s-1 (p < 0.001), concomitantly with stride length (1.63 ± 0.05 vs. 1.73 ± 0.06 m; p < 0.001). However, stride rate did not change (3.15 ± 0.03 vs. 3.16 ± 0.02 Hz; p = 0.14). While DTH was not significantly different from pre- to post- (1.34 ± 0.08 vs. 1.40 ± 0.07 m; p = 0.09), DLH was significantly longer (1.17 ± 0.07 vs. 1.36 ± 0.05 m; p < 0.01). VTH and VLH significantly improved after intervention (5.00 ± 0.14 vs. 5.33 ± 0.16 m.s-1 and 5.18 ± 0.13 vs. 5.51 ± 0.22 m.s-1, respectively; both p < 0.01). Finally, MH increased from pre- to post- (52.5 ± 3.8 vs. 54.9 ± 2.1 cm; p < 0.05). A 16-day moderate altitude training camp allowed an elite female 3,000-m steeplechase athlete to improve running velocity through a greater glycolytic-but not aerobic-metabolism.

International audience; This case study allowed an examination of the link between sleep and injury occurrence in an elite male soccer player competing in French League 1 and Union of European Football Associations matches. During 4 months, a mixed method approach was used, combining actigraphic sleep assessment with qualitative interviews on a daily basis. Three injuries were reported over the study period. Sleep onset latency (SOL), both in the single night (117 ± 43 minutes) and in the week (78 ± 50 minutes) before injury occurrence, was longer than preseason baseline values (18 ± 13 minutes; effect size (ES): 3.1 and 1.6, respectively). Similarly, sleep efficiency in the single night (73 ± 7%) and the week (75 ± 7%) before injury occurrence was lower than baseline (90 ± 3%; ES: 3.2 and 2.8, respectively). In this case study, SOL and efficiency were altered on the night and in the week before injury occurrence. Individualized assessment of sleep during congested playing schedules may be useful to aid in preventing injury occurrence.

International audience; Objectives: The aim of this study was to quantify collective experience based on cumulative shared selections of players and to assess its impact on team performance in international rugby union. We assume that the greater the experience, the better the group will perform. Methods: Scoresheets of all games involving at least one of all 10 nations participating at the Rugby Championship and the Six Nations Championship were collected from the end of the 1999 Rugby World Cup (RWC) up to the 2015 RWC. A single indicator quantifying the cumulative shared selections (CSS, the number of selections that each player has shared with the other ones) was computed for each match as a key collective experience indicator. The World Rugby Ranking points of each nation and the percentage of victories were used to estimate team performance. The study period was divided into sequences of 4 years corresponding to the period between two consecutive RWCs. For each sequence and nation, slopes and intercept of CSS trends were computed along with victory percentage and mean ranking points. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to establish the associations between team performance and experience. Results: In regards to the CSS trends, both intra-and inter-nation variability appears to exist. Positive and negative slopes can be observed for the same team from one 4-year cycle to the next. Still, CSS slope is found to be significantly associated with both ranking points (p value = 0.042, R ² = 0.13) and victory percentage (p value = 0.001, R ² = 0.42). Conclusion: The evolution of the CSS that quantifies the collective experience of a team is linked to its performance. Such an indicator could be helpful in the decision-making process of national coaching staff.

Background: Performance in discus throw requires high forces and torques generated from the shoulder of the throwing arm, making shoulder muscles at risk of overuse injury. Little is known on muscle activation patterns in elite discus throw. Hypothesis/Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the kinetics and shoulder muscle activation during discus throws by using two discs of different mass. It was hypothesized that the use of a lighter discus would modify the activation of the shoulder musculature compared to a standard discus.\ud Study design: Case-control laboratory study Methods: Seven male elite discus throwers performed five throws using a standard discus (STD, 2.0 kg) and five throws using a lighter weight discus (LGT, 1.7 kg). Surface EMG was recorded for the biceps brachii (BB), deltoideus anterior (DA), deltoideus medialis (DM), clavicular head of the pectoralis major (PM), latissimus dorsi (LD), and trapezius medialis (TM). Three-dimensional high-speed video analysis was utilised to record discus speed and identify the different temporal phases of each throw from the preparation phase (P1) to the delivery phase (P5).\ud Results: The EMG activation of LD lasted longer (p < 0.01) in P1 and was initiated later in P5 with the LGT discus compared to STD. In P5, the EMG intensity of BB decreased (p = 0.02) with LGT (%EMGmax = 50.4 ± 49.6%) compared to STD (64.8 ± 77.9%) and the activation of PM increased (p < 0.01) with LGT (86.2 ± 40.3%) compared to STD (66.2 ± 26.9%). The discus speed at release was increased (p = 0.04) by using the LGT discus (20.62 ± 0.75m.s-1) compared to STD (19.61 ± 0.57m.s-1). The throwing distance was also increased (P < 0.01) with the LGT (43.1 ± 4.3m) discus compared to STD (39.4 ± 3.4m).\ud Conclusion: A lighter discus could be used by elite athletes in training t 50 o add variability in muscle solicitation and thus limit the overload on certain muscles of the shoulder region. These results may have implications to lower the risk of injury in discus throw. Clinical relevance: The increase in shoulder muscle activity combined with the accelerated forward swing of the throwing arm in P5 may help explain the incidence of muscle and tendon injuries clinically observed in discus throw. Using a lighter discus in training may add variability in muscle activity and motion kinetics to lower the mechanical load on the shoulder and tendons.

Background: This study investigated the periodization of elite swimmers' training over the 25 weeks preceding the major competition of the season. Methods: We conducted a retrospective observational study of elite male (n = 60) and female (n = 67) swimmers (46 sprint, 81 middle-distance) over 20 competitive seasons (1992-2012). The following variables were monitored: training corresponding to blood lactate 4-6 mmol.L-1, >6 mmol.L-1, and maximal swimming speed; general conditioning and maximal strength training hours; total training load (TTL); and the mean normalized volumes for both in-water and dryland workouts. Latent class mixed modeling was used to identify various TTL pattern groups. The associations between pattern groups and sex, age, competition event, Olympic quadrennial year, training contents, and relative performance were quantified. Results: For the entire cohort, similar to 86-90% of the training was swum at an intensity of [La](b) 4-6 mmol.L-1, and 3.5-4.5% at > 6 mmol.L-1. Three sprint TTL patterns were identified: a pattern with two long similar to 14-15-week macrocycles, one with two similar to 12-13 week macrocycles each composed of a balanced training load, and one with a single stable flat macrocycle. The long pattern elicited the fastest performances and was most prevalent in Olympic quadrennials (i.e., 4 seasons preceding the 2004, 2008, and 2012 Olympic Games). This pattern exhibited moderate week-to-week TTL variability (6 +/- 3%), progressive training load increases between macrocycles, and more training at 6 mmol.L-1. This fastest sprint pattern showed a waveform in the second macrocycle consisting of two progressive load peaks 10-11 and 4-6 weeks before competition. The stable flat pattern was the slowest and showed low TTL variability (4 +/- 3%), training load decreases between macrocycles (P < 0.01), and more training at 4-6 mmol.L-1 (P < 0.01). Conclusion: Progressive increases in training load, macrocycles lasting about 14-15 weeks, and substantial volume of training at intensities 6 mmol.L-1, were associated with peak performance in elite swimmers. This research was partially funded by the French Institute of Sport, Expertise and Performance (INSEP) and the French Ministry in charge of sports under grant no. 14r21.

International audience; The nature of the game of basketball, which is to score more hoops than the opposing team while respecting a set of rules, has often been questionned. Young players have been developing new ways to play and think basketball ever since the advent of the American hip-hop basketball ("hip-hop ball") culture in France in the noughties. However, this way of playing basketball is viewed negatively by club coaches, who are the guardians of institutional basketball. Through participant observation and the interviewing of five coaches and 32 players, this article seeks to measure the consequences of what may be seen as a cultural divide. Our findings show how coaches depreciate hip-hop ball culture and sometimes stigmatize players to reinforce their own legitimacy within institutional basketball. Also, our data illustrate the players' ability to shift from one basketball culture to the next in an attempt to gain recognition in institutional basketball.

Purpose: To investigate the effects of repeated-sprint training in hypoxia vs in normoxia on world-level male rugby union players’ repeated-sprint ability (RSA) during an international competition period. Methods: A total of 19 players belonging to an international rugby union senior male national team performed 4 sessions of cycling repeated sprints (consisting of 3 × eight 10-s sprints with 20 s passive recovery) either in normobaric hypoxia (RSH, 3000 m; n = 10) or in normoxia (RSN, 300 m; n = 9) over a 2-wk period. Before and after the training intervention, RSA was evaluated using a cycling repeated-sprint test (6 × 10-s maximal sprint and 20-s passive recovery) performed in normoxia. Results: Significant interaction effects (all P ) between condition and time were found for RSA-related parameters. Compared with Pre, maximal power significantly improved at Post in RSH (12.84 [0.83] vs 13.63 [1.03] W·kg−1, P ) but not in RSN (13.17 [0.89] vs 13.00 [1.01] W·kg−1, P = .45, ). Mean power was also significantly enhanced from Pre to Post in RSH (11.15 [0.58] vs 11.86 [0.63] W·kg−1, P ), whereas it remained unchanged in RSN (11.54 [0.61] vs 11.75 [0.65] W·kg−1, P = .23, ). Conclusion: As few as 4 dedicated specific RSH sessions were beneficial to enhance repeated power production in world-level rugby union players. Although the improvement from RSA to game behavior remains unclear, this finding appears to be of practical relevance as only a short preparation window is available prior to international rugby union games.

Nedelec, M, Dawson, B, and Dupont, G. Influence of night soccer matches on sleep in elite players. J Strength Cond Res 33(1): 174-179, 2019-This study examined the impact of night matches on the sleep/wake behavior of elite soccer players participating in the UEFA Champions League and French Ligue 1. A mixed method approach was used, combining objective sleep assessment with wrist activity monitors, and a survey to ascertain the sleep complaints after night matches (kick off after 18:00 hours). Most players (90%) indicated worse sleep in the nights after evening matches than after training days. Objective time in bed (-01:39 hours; effect size [ES] = 1.7; p < 0.001) and total sleep time (-01:32 hours; ES = 1.4; p < 0.001) were both lower after night matches than after training days. Night matches had a marked influence on sleep quantity later that night, both objectively and subjectively. The survey revealed that players may not have appropriate methods for better managing their sleep after night matches. It is yet to be determined whether players may benefit from individualized sleep interventions in these circumstances.

International audience; Purpose: To quantify the impact of a polarized distribution of training intensity on performance and fatigue in elite swimmers.Methods: Twenty-two elite junior swimmers (12 males, age = 17 [3] y, and 10 females, age = 17 [3] y) participated in a crossover intervention study over 28 wk involving 2- × 6-wk training periods separated by 6 wk. Swimmers were randomly assigned to a training group for the first period: polarized (81% in zone 1, blood lactate concentration, [La]b ≤ 2 mmol·L−1; 4% in zone 2, 2 mmol·L−1 4 mmol·L−1) or threshold (65%/25%/10%). Before and after each period, they performed a 100-m maximal swimming test to determine performance, maximal [La]b, and oxygen consumption and an incremental swimming test to determine speed corresponding to [La]b = 4 mmol·L−1 (V4 mmol·L−1). Self-reported indices of well-being were collected with a daily questionnaire.Results: Polarized training elicited small to moderately greater improvement than threshold training on 100-m performance (within-group change ± 90% confidence interval: 0.97% ± 1.02% vs 0.09% ± 0.94%, respectively) with less fatigue and better quality of recovery. There was no substantial gender effect. No clear differences were observed in physiological adaptations between groups.Conclusions: In elite junior swimmers, a 6-wk period of polarized training induced small improvements in 100-m time-trial performance and, in combination with less perceived fatigue, forms a viable option for coaches preparing such cohorts of swimmers for competition.

Purpose: To evaluate the effect of multiple sets of repeated-sprint-ability (RSA)-induced fatigue on subsequent passing-skill performance in field hockey players. Methods: A total of 10 elite U-21 (under-21) male field hockey players performed 5 sets of a combination of RSA test (6 × 20 m, 20 s of passive recovery) followed by a 1-min passing-skill test (passing reception with subsequent passes at a predesigned target). Data on fastest sprint time and cumulated sprint time for RSA test; total number of balls played, targeted, and passing accuracy (number of balls targeted/total number of balls played) for passing-skill test; heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentration (BLa), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were collected throughout the protocol. Results: RSA performance was significantly impaired from set 1 to set 5 (fastest sprint time +4.1%, P P P P P r2 = .94, P Conclusion: Multiple-set RSA-induced fatigue was accompanied by passing-skill adjustment variation, suggesting a complex interaction between physiological and psychological/cognitive function to preserve passing skill under fatigued condition.

International audience; The aim of this case study was to investigate the effects of a shock microcycle of repeated-sprint training in hypoxia (RSH) on physical fitness and tennis performance. One rookie professional tennis player performed repeated-sprint ability (RSA) and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery level 2 (YYIR2) tests before and after (+3 days and +21 days) 6 sessions of RSH (4 sets of 5 × ~6s repeated-shuttle sprint interspersed by ~24 s of passive recovery) practiced during a 14-day "in-season" period. Tennis performance was subjectively measured from match results and Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) points obtained during four professional tournaments played before and after intervention. While no changes were found at +3 days post-RSH, improvements in physical fitness [single sprint time (-4.5%), RSA total time (-3.1%) and sprint decrement (-16.7%), as well as YYIR2 total distance covered (+ 21.4%)] were observable at +21 days post-RSH. Tennis performance obtained during the tournaments was better after intervention. From pre to post-RSH, the decreases in opponents' ATP ranking during matches won (1109 ± 334 points vs. 818 ± 212 points) and lost (499 ± 68 points vs. 256 ± 58 points) revealed a stronger opposition. Consequently, a threefold increase (from 4 to 12 ATP points gained from pre to post-RSH) in participant's ATP ranking was recorded. In summary, a 14-day "in-season" shock microcycle including 6 sessions of repeated-sprint training in hypoxia revealed interesting effects in specific fitness and tennis performance in a rookie professional tennis player.

International audience; In France, rugby union’s geography features a pervasiveness in the south-west, where licence-holders are over-represented in comparison to other regions. The article questions the influence of this regional characteristic on young rugby players’ conditions for entry. In other words, the paper’s main aim is to grasp the different conditions for access to rugby depending on the region one lives in. Carried out through questionnaires, the survey made it possible to interview 2,455 children between the ages of 9 and 11. The results show that rugby’s geographical specificity has little influence on these young players’ conditions for entry. If some regional differences can be observed, they are not linked to the importance of rugby in these spaces.; En France, la géographie du rugby à XV présente une prégnance forte dans le Sud-Ouest, où les licenciés sont surreprésentés au regard des autres régions. L’article interroge l’influence de cette particularité régionale sur les conditions d’entrée dans la pratique des jeunes joueurs de rugby. En d’autres termes, l’objectif principal de l’article est de saisir les différentes modalités d’accès au rugby au regard de la région de pratique. L’enquête, menée par questionnaires, a permis d’interroger 2 455 enfants âgés de 9 à 11 ans. Les résultats montrent que la spécificité géographique du rugby a peu d’influence sur les conditions d’entrée dans la pratique de ces jeunes joueurs. Ainsi, si des différences régionales sont observées, elles ne sont pas liées au caractère dit rugbystique des espaces en question.

Purpose:To investigate the running demands and associated metabolic perturbations during an official rugby sevens tournament.Methods:Twelve elite players participated in 7 matches wearing GPS units. Maximal sprinting speed (MSS) and maximal aerobic speed (MAS) were measured. High-intensity threshold was individualized relative to MAS (>100% of MAS), and very-high-intensity distance was reported relative to both MAS and MSS. Blood samples were taken at rest and after each match.Results:Comparison of prematch and postmatch samples revealed significant (P < .01) changes in pH (7.41–7.25), bicarbonate concentration ([HCO3–]) (24.8–13.6 mmol/L), and lactate concentration ([La]) (2.4–11.9 mmol/L). Mean relative total distance covered was 91 ± 13 m/min with ~17 m/min at high-intensity. Player status (whole-match or interchanged players), match time, and total distance covered had no significant impact on metabolic indices. Relative distance covered at high intensity was negatively correlated with pH and [HCO3–] (r = .44 and r = .42, respectively; P < .01) and positively correlated with [La] (r = .36; P < .01). Total distance covered and distance covered at very high intensity during the 1-min peak activity in the last 3 min of play were correlated with [La] (r = .39 and r = .39, respectively; P < .01).Conclusions:Significant alterations in blood-metabolite indices from prematch to postmatch sampling suggest that players were required to tolerate a substantial level of acidosis related to metabolite accumulation. In addition, the ability to produce energy via the glycolytic energy pathway seems to be a major determinant in match-related running performance.

International audience; The aim of this study was to quantify the impact of selections and shared selections in the rugby union. Players’ names, positions, and number of selections were collected for all XV de France’s games (1906–2014). Every team’s percentage of renewal of workforce was calculated for backs and forwards. During the 1987–2014 period, all second row forwards (locks), halfbacks, and centres’ shared selections (number of times when two players have competed together) were recreated. The Best vs. Rest method was applied to these remodelled dyads. They were analysed and compared with surrounding teammates as well as opponents. Head coaches similarly change their workforce for upcoming matches after winning or losing (around 30%), but losing teams renew significantly more positions in their line-ups. The recreated halfbacks, locks, and centres reveal a common pattern. Whether victorious or not, the ‘renewed couples’ victory percentage will congregate towards the XV de France’s victory percentage. For all the best recreated couples, the cumulated number of selections for forwards’ is always higher than the ones part of less efficient teams: 231.3 ± 80 vs. 212.9 ± 91 selections for locks’ teammates (Effect sizes (ES) small, possibly positive, 54.8%). In best recreated couples, number 8’s are significantly more experienced than their counterparts in less efficient pairs (ES small, likely positive, 76.3%). The XV de France’s collective effectiveness relies on a balance between stability and workforce renewal, which allows the building of specific position interactions and builds on experimented forwards packs. Selections and shared selections are serious collective performance parameters associated with performance.

National audience; Travailler la technique en intégrant le physique reste une desproblématiques essentielles des athlètes de sports collectifspour gagner les grandes compétitions internationales. C’estle constat qui a émergé au sein du pôle hockey sur gazon de l’INSEP.Une équipe, avec l’unité d’aide méthodologique de la performancede l’INSEP, a donc décidé de mettre au point un dispositifd’évaluation pour mesurer l’efficacité d’une tâche technique dansun contexte physique exigeant provoquant nécessairement unefatigue. Vincent Le Croller et Enzo Hollville nous font partager leursactions sur ce projet de grande envergure impliquant notammentconjointement un travail entre entraîneur, chercheur et spécialisteen méthodologie.

International audience; This paper is about women’s rugby union and dangerousness, two themes which are oftenassociated. Indeed, when women say they play rugby a lot of people instantly think about danger. Theresearch is based upon 197 questionnaires filled out by rugbywomen who play in the french first division.If the analysis (using the Sphinx2 software) of some results does not encourage women to start playingrugby (75 % of the players said they had been injured), social explanations have to be found. Collard(1998) helps us by affirming that “in a given sport, our perception of risk is inversely proportional tothe skill we have for it”. Furthermore, it seems that violence, which still is a central component of themen’s game (Elias & Dunning, 1969), does not express itself in a satisfying way in the women’s rugby,as if tension was not as easily accepted.; Cette étude se base sur 197 questionnaires de joueuses de rugby de première division. Le sujetest celui du rugby féminin et de la dangerosité. Ces deux thématiques sont souvent associées. À la simpleévocation de la pratique du rugby par des femmes, de nombreux individus pensent au danger. Si certainsrésultats n’incitent pas à la pratique de ce sport (75 % des joueuses disent avoir été blessées), desexplications sont à rechercher sur le plan social. Luc Collard nous met sur la piste en avançant que laviolence est perçue comme d’autant plus importante que « la perception du risque dans un sport donnéest inversement proportionnelle à la maîtrise que l’on en a. Plus on est expert, moins le sport où l’onexcelle paraît périlleux. Plus on est incompétent, moins le sport que l’on découvre paraît sécurisant »(Collard, 1998). De plus, il semblerait que la violence, qui reste une composante centrale de la pratiquemasculine (Elias & Dunning, 1986), ne s’exprime pas, dans le cas d’une pratique féminine, d’unemanière qui soit socialement acceptable, comme si la tension autorisée chez les femmes était moindre.

International audience; the institutionalization process of this actor of the game, regarding the transformation of football’srules in the past 150 years. Through the analysis of the archives of the first two club associationsand of the Board, we will focus on the different actors who had to supervise and control the game.Studying the developments in the responsibilities of the central referee will then make it possibleto better understand the complexity of his function and the exercise of his power, even leading usto question recent transformations like video refereeing and goal-line officials.; Reçu le 28 novembre 2013 – Accepté le 15 décembre 2014 Résumé. L'arbitre est une figure emblématique des sports modernes. Dans cet article, l'ambition est d'éclairer le processus d'institutionnalisation de cet acteur du jeu au regard de la transformation du règlement du football depuis 150 ans. À partir de l'analyse des archives des deux premières associations de clubs et de celles du Board, nous nous sommes d'abord intéressés aux différents acteurs auxquels est dévolue cette tâche de surveiller et de diriger le jeu. Puis, dans un second temps, l'étude des évolutions des responsabilités de l'arbitre central nous amène à appréhender la complexité de sa fonction et les conditions d'exercice de son pouvoir jusqu'à interroger les transformations récentes que constituent l'apport de la vidéo et l'arbitrage à cinq. Mots clés : Histoire du football, arbitre, lois du jeu, rôle, pouvoir Abstract. Role and power of the football referee: an historical approach. The referee has emerged as an emblematic figure of modern sports. Our aim is to shed some light on the institutionalization process of this actor of the game, regarding the transformation of football's rules in the past 150 years. Through the analysis of the archives of the first two club associations and of the Board, we will focus on the different actors who had to supervise and control the game. Studying the developments in the responsibilities of the central referee will then make it possible to better understand the complexity of his function and the exercise of his power, even leading us to question recent transformations like video refereeing and goal-line officials.

International audience

International audience; Purpose. – Investigate the influence of previous swimming on energy expenditure during the subsequent cycling exercise of a triathlon.Methods. – Ten well trained triathletes underwent 3 swim-to-cycle transitions and 1 isolated cycling trial (C trial). The cycling exercises consisted in 15 min on a bicycle ergometer at a power output corresponding to the ventilatory threshold +5 %. During the transitions, this exercise was preceded by swimming bouts soliciting different muscles, undertaken at a 750 m competition pace for the same duration (swimming with arms and legs: Sal trial, with arms only: SA trial, or with legs only: SL trial).Résultats. – The swimming bouts of SA and Sal trials involved a significant increase in energy expenditure during subsequent cycling in comparison with isolated cycling (P < 0.05). Moreover, cycling efficiency was not significantly different between SA and SAL trials (P > 0.05).Conclusion. – A short intense swimming leads to an increase in energy expenditure during subsequent cycling, because of the thermoregulatory adjustments and the additional oxygen cost of respiratory work involved during swimming. It also shows that physiological adaptation during cycling does not depend on the lower limb work during prior swimming; Objectif. – Étudier l’influence d’une épreuve de natation sur la dépense énergétique dans l’exercice de cyclisme subséquent lors de l’enchaînement cyclisme–natation d’un triathlon.Méthodes. – Dix triathlètes entraînés ont participé à 3 enchaînements natation–cyclisme et une épreuve isolée de cyclisme (épreuve C). L’exercice de cyclisme comprenait 15 minutes sur ergocycle à une puissance correspondant au seuil ventilatoire +5 %. Durant les enchaînements, cet exercice était précédé d’épreuves de natation sollicitant différentes masses musculaires, réalisées pendant la même durée à une allure de compétition sur 750 m (nage avec les bras et les jambes : NC, nage avec les bras uniquement : NB, nage avec les jambes uniquement : NJ).Résultats. – Une augmentation significative de la dépense énergétique en cyclisme est observée à la suite des épreuves de natation NB et NC, par rapport à l’épreuve isolée (p < 0,05). En revanche, le rendement du cyclisme est identique dans les conditions NB et NC (p > 0,05).Conclusion. – Une épreuve préalable de natation intense altère la dépense énergétique en cyclisme, notamment par les ajustements thermorégulatoires et le coût du travail respiratoire qu’elle induit. L’adaptation physiologique en cyclisme ne semble pas dépendre de l’importance du travail des jambes en natation.

International audience; Le football est souvent présenté comme un objet unique,se jouant à onze contre onze sur une pelouse. Pourtant,les facteurs environnementaux, économiques, ou toutsimplement les motivations des acteurs ont transforméla pratique. Cet objet se décline désormais de différentesmanières, conditionnant des formes de pratique variées.

International audience; Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, the attractiveness of Judo was accentuatedby the ideology it conveyed that the little man could, with work, defeat the big one. The pioneersof judo were motivated by the hope of endless progress and, with it, that of being able to face up toany situation, even the most uncertain – regardless of one’s social background. In 1960 however, withthe development of this sport and the new organization of competitions now based on weight categories,such hope disappeared. A less idealized outlook on this activity replaced the philosophical dimensionof judo. Today, categories is a given, and from our western point of view, competitions withoutweight categories, such as the Kan Nai competition for children, seem odd at all levels. Yet theyare very meaningful in Japan and since 2012, the budô, including judô, are compulsory teachings inhigh schools. These teachings then lead to competitions without weight categories that are emblematicalof the type of education Japan wishes to promote; an education meant to prepare youngstersto face the uncertainties of life. It is the purpose of this paper to study such competitions in order tounderstand both their organization and their deep cultural relevance.; Dans la première moitié du XXe siècle, l’enracinement du judo en France est accéléré par lareprésentation qu’il diffuse du plus petit qui vient à bout du plus fort. La motivation des pionniersest portée par l’espoir de l’infini progrès qu’offre le judo et du pouvoir de faire face à toute situationaussi incertaine soit-elle, quelle que soit sa condition. En 1960, avec la montée du sport et la nouvelleorganisation des compétitions prévoyant des catégories de poids, cet espoir s’éteint. La conceptionphilosophique du judo a laissé place à une perspective sportive moins idéalisée. Aujourd’hui,ceci est un fait établi et, de notre point de vue occidental, la compétition sans catégorie de poids deKan Nai (Japon) pour les enfants se présente comme une pratique étrange en tout point. Elle prendtoutefois un sens au Japon puisque depuis la rentrée scolaire 2012, les budô, dont le judô, sont matièreobligatoire au collège. Les compétitions sans catégories de poids sont emblématiques d’uneéducation que le Japon souhaite réhabiliter, une éducation pour faire face à l’incertain. Nous avonsobservé cette compétition pour tenter d’en comprendre les conditions de son organisation et sa significationculturelle.

International audience; This article aims to formalizing the evolving of definitions of the swimmer since 1960. This paper develops the thought that this change depend from periods and institutions. The institution defines the scope of the swimmer through coaching and life guard staff. In fact the shaping of swimmer involves the swimming learning organization. Based on analyses of institutional instructions in physical education and Ministry of Sport we explain the link between swimmer definitions and didactic according with the institution underlying. Thus there are many definitions different tests and degrees. Recently they reflect the meeting between different swimming organizations. Thereby, the actually definition of the swimmer since similar. To sum up, after a technical method, the swimmer is considered in a global attitude who attests the practical cultural background. This change also stressed strongly the pedagogic and didactic evolutions.; L’objet de cette étude est de mettre en évidence que l’évolution des définitions du nageur depuis 1960 varie en fonction des enjeux et des objets selon les époques et les institutions qui les génèrent. Les différentes institutions déclinent la définition du nageur en normes d’encadrement, ordonnant de ce fait les formes d’organisation de l’enseignement de la natation. À partir d’une analyse des textes officiels de l’Éducation nationale, du ministère de la Jeunesse et des Sports et de la Fédération française de natation, nous serons conduits à associer ces définitions aux conceptions didactiques des institutions sous-jacentes. Les définitions du nageur varient et s’expriment par des tests. L’analyse des textes et tests nous montrera comment une convergence des objectifs des différentes instances s’est progressivement réalisée au cours de ces dernières décennies, s’exprimant partiellement à travers une définition similaire d’un savoir nager. Nous tenterons de démontrer qu’après une approche techniciste de la définition du nageur, les instances qualifient le nageur dans une conception globale s’inscrivant aussi bien dans le contexte culturel des pratiques que dans l’évolution pédagogique et didactique de l’activité.

International audience; La boxe anglaise est un sport technique occasionnant une dépense énergétique importante (Dal Monte et Menchinelli, 1986 ; Victorov et al, 1976). L'entraîneur doit intégrer les deux composantes, technique et énergétique, dans la préparation des boxeurs. L'entraînement technique se fait lors de séances spécifiques de type « frappe au sac » ou combat. L'entraînement physique se fait soit sous forme de course à pied ou de « saut à la corde », soit lors de séances plus spécifiques comme la «frappe au sac». Ces séances d'entraînement font partie de la « culture pugilistique » et ont été peu modifiées ces dernières années. Aussi, pour définir la programmation de l'entraînement, est-il important de connaître la nature des sollicitations du métabolisme énergétique lors de ces séances. Or peu d'études dans le domaine de la boxe anglaise ont été réalisées. Ces études ont utilisé la fréquence cardiaque. Victorov et al (1976) ont utilisé la fréquence cardiaque pour évaluer quantitativement l'intensité des charges d'entraînement. Dal Monte et Menchinelli (1986) ont étudié l'évolution de la fréquence cardiaque au cours de combats amateurs de boxe anglaise. Leur conclusion est que les combats sollicitent alternativement les métabolismes aérobie et anaérobie. Le fait que ces études utilisent uniquement la fréquence cardiaque ne permet pas de déterminer avec précision la filière énergétique dominante pour chaque exercice. C'est pour cette raison que nous avons essayé de mettre en relation dans cette étude la lactatémie et la fréquence cardiaque mesurées sur le terrain et les mêmes paramètres mesurés en laboratoire pour étudier le métabolisme énergétique sollicité lors des séances d'entraînement chez des boxeurs de haut niveau.

National audience

The aims of this study were to determine (1) the individual tactics employed by elite modern pentathletes within each discipline of the new combined running-shooting event, and (2) the consequences of these strategies on overall performance. For 36 male pentathletes competing in a World Cup event, we measured running velocity, transition time, shooting time, shooting accuracy, and delay per shot. Performances of the top third of athletes, middle third of athletes, and the bottom third of athletes in the combined event were compared. The difference in overall performance between the top third and middle/bottom thirds was predominately associated with better shooting accuracy (79 +/- 13%, 68 +/- 12%, and 64 +/- 10% success rate for top, middle, and bottom third, respectively) and faster shooting time (86 +/- 16 s, 109 +/- 19 s, and 117 +/- 23 s for top, middle, and bottom third, respectively). No significant differences in running velocity, transition time or delay per shot were observed among the three groups. All the competitors started significantly faster over the first 200 m of each of the three 1-km running stages. The last third of the approximately 3-km race was completed significantly faster by all athletes (P0.05). The main finding was that the best performers of the combined event distinguished themselves due to their greater shooting accuracy.

International audience; A notational. analysis of singles events at the French Open Grand Siam tournament was undertaken in 2005 and 2006 to characterize the game patterns and strategies of sei-ve and serve-return and to determine their influence on the point issue on a c!ay court surface. One hundred sixteen men's singles matches were video analyzed. The fiat serve (57.6%), particularly down the "T" location (50.3%), allowed servers Io win significantly more points than tlîe topspin (24.1%) and slice serves (18.3%). When the topspin was the first serve strategy, servers kept a high percentage of points won frohJ the serve (52.4%). This strategy was essentially used on the second serve (91.6%) by playing the "T" location in the deuce courtand the wide zone in the,.:.advantage court. Returns ta the central zone allowed receivers to win more points {73.30/o on first serve and 65.90/o on second serve) than plays ta externat locations. The results highlight the high impact of the first shots of ail opponents on the ra\ly. Even on c!ay, the slowest court surface, serves and serve-returns remain the strokes that most influence the match results in modern tennis games.

International audience; Depuis la réception en 2007 de la coupe du monde de rugby en France1, la Fédérationfrançaise de rugby a enregistré une hausse de 35% de ses licenciés et en comptabilise environ350 000 aujourd’hui. En 2007, les femmes constituaient environ 3% des licenciés (doc.1), maisleur nombre augmente également. Assez méconnue, leur pratique, en compétition chezles seniors, est aujourd’hui répartie au sein de trois divisions qui comptabilisent 12 500licenciées. Même si les chiffres restent faibles comparés à ceux des joueurs (11 niveaux decompétition pour 340 000 licenciés), il est intéressant de noter que les effectifs fémininsont suivi la progression liée à cet événement planétaire. Deux questions sont posées :qui sont les joueuses de rugby de première division française et comment ont-elles étéamenées à pratiquer cette activité ?

International audience; L’Australie et la France sont deux pays qui semblent être dotés d’une culture sportive bien différente. Leur image, tout au moins, ne présente pas de réelles similitudes. Ainsi, alors qu’Australie rime souvent avec culture sportive, la France de façon très schématique et rapide est cataloguée comme un pays où la culture au sens le plus noble du terme est omniprésente. Qu’en est-il réellement de leurs habitants et de leurs pratiques ? Et plus précisément, envers le fait social qu’est le sport ? Et quelle est l’orientation de l’éducation physique et sportive enseignée à l’école ? Les représentations ont la vie dure, et on aurait tendance à imaginer que lorsque les jeunes écoliers australiens pratiquent une éducation sportive, les jeunes écoliers français pratiquent une éducation physique.Pour tenter de répondre à ces questions, l’analyse est axée sur un sport, le rugby à XV, puis évoque des activités physiques dont la logique interne est proche : le flag rugby et le touch rugby, également appelé rugby touché. Nous verrons dans quelles mesures ces deux cultures, française et australienne, acceptent les modifications d’un sport, les variantes de la pratique de référence (ici le rugby) en différentes formes de pratiques.Dans une première partie, nous présenterons les origines et la place du rugby à XV en Australie et en France. Puis, les principaux résultats d’une recherche réalisée lors d’une thèse en cotutelle en Australie et en France auprès des pratiquants de rugby à XV seront comparés (déterminants socioculturels, modalités de la pratique, préférences sportives). En fin d’article, nous évoquerons succinctement l’implantation du sport, et plus précisément du rugby et de ses activités connexes, au sein du système éducatif de chacun de ces deux pays.

National audience; Gérald Baudouin est aujourd’hui l’entraîneur du pôleFrance saut à la perche de l’INSEP. Il a longtemps faitpartie du groupe d’entraînement dirigé par MauriceHouvion pour finalement lui succéder. Au-delà de cetteexpérience de compagnonnage par l’entraînement, noussouhaitons insister dans cet article sur la spécificité dessports dits techniques, ceux pour lesquels le respect dela forme est une garantie, voire une condition d’efficacité.Cette problématique se pose dans de nombreux sports,elle intervient aussi avec acuité dans le saut à la perche,activité particulièrement contrainte d’un point de vuemécanique. La spécificité de l’approche développée parGérald Baudouin consiste précisément à ne pas laisserl’athlète subir le modèle pour chercher à se l’approprierde façon active.Son rôle consiste à collaborer avec le perchiste pouradapter le saut à ses propres qualités physiques ettechniques, sans jamais dénaturer des principes debase, ceux qui font que le saut peut être performant. Ils’agit pour lui de proposer un protocole d’entraînementbasé sur une combinaison préparation physique /entraînement technique qui permette à chaque perchistede tendre vers une technique optimale.

International audience; This review focuses on strategic aspects which may affect performance during a long duration Olympic event: the Olympic distance Triathlon. Given the variety of races during Olympic games, Strategic aspects include as well improving technological features as energetical factors affecting the overall triathlon performance.. During the last decade, a lot of studies have attempted to identify factors reducing the metabolic load associated or not with the development of fatigue process by analysing the relationship between metabolic and biomechanical factors with exercise duration. To date, an actual consensus exists about the benefit to adopt a drafting position during the swimming or the cycling part of the triathlon. Other potential strategic factors such as the production of power output or the selection of cadence during the cycle leg or the running part are likely to affect the overall triathlon performance. Within this approach, pacing strategies are observed elite athletes who swim or cycle in a sheltered position inducing several changes of pace, intensity or stochastic shifts in the amplitude of the physiological responses. The analysis of these parameters appears to arouse some experimental and practical interests from researchers and coachers especially for long distance Olympic events.

National audience; Cinq spécialités sportives qui n'ont, à priori, pas grand-chose en commun.Pourtant, le challenge du pentathlon moderne est bien d'enchaîner le tir,l'escrime, l'équitation, la natation et la course à pied dans la journée.Le pentathlon moderne n'est surtout pas l'addition de cinq spécialités, mais uneseule épreuve, avec ses spécificités parfois complexes. Dans ce contexte,l'entraînement n'est efficace que s'il s'appuie sur une programmation cohérentequi tient compte de nombreux paramètres aussi différents que l'entraînementdes points faibles et des points forts, ou encore l'âge et le vécu des pentathlètes.L'originalité de cette discipline a également abouti à des solutions très innovantes,comme la mise en place de "blocs" de spécialités, périodes privilégiées pourle perfectionnement d'une spécialité…

National audience; La question de l'intérêt des automatismesse pose dans de nombreuses activités sportives ;il s'agit de chercher à gagner du temps sur laréalisation motrice de l'action en réduisant lescoûts liés à la prise de décision, parce que lescontraintes temporelles sont toujours trèsmarquées.Ce contexte est particulièrement vérifié pour lesactivités qui autorisent la présence directed'adversaires dans l'action, en leur donnant lapossibilité de contre-communiquer.L'escrime est une activité sportive particulièrementsollicitée sur cette dimension, il s'agit à lafois de s'engager dans des actions de résolutiontactique et de produire des actions marquéespar la double contrainte vitesse/précision.Ce dilemme est encore plus saillant en épée,arme stratégique caractérisée par de longuesphases d'approche.Michel Sicard contourne la conceptionconsistant à réduire les actions commecontingentes à une réflexion préalable pourproposer une représentation sensitive d'uneescrime "dans l'action".Son modèle n'est pas simplement conceptuel,il s'accompagne de modalités d'entraînementspécifiques qu'il décline.Passer d'une conception assise sur la notiond'automatisme à une représentation orientéepar la sensation, tel est le chalenge de cetarticle.

National audience; Le sport de compétition met généralementdes adversaires en situation d'opposition et despartenaires en situation de coopération. Dansla pratique, que ce soit en sport collectif ou ensport individuel, les formes d'entraînement sontessentiellement collectives ; pour stimuler lacompétitivité et progresser, les partenaires sontsouvent placés en situation d'opposition.Les modes d'organisation de l'entraînement ensport de haut niveau sont ainsi caractériséspar des dynamiques à la fois individuelles etcollectives dans lesquelles on conjugue lesphases de coopération et d'opposition.Cet article aborde la thématique de lacoopération-concurrence au sein des collectifsd'entraînement avec une déclinaison pratiquerarement abordée.Il retrace les questions managériales que sepose un entraîneur de canoë confronté à la gestiond'un collectif.Son groupe est constitué de 4 sportifs de hautniveau, tous ayant déjà gagné des épreuvesinternationales majeures. L'entraîneur doit lesgérer individuellement et collectivement lorsdes compétitions et à l'entraînement, alorsqu'ils sont simultanément partenaireset adversaires. Cette situation est vécue commeproblématique par l'entraîneur qui doit faireface à un dilemme : il s'agit à la fois de profiterdes valeurs intrinsèques de chaqueindividualité pour stimuler et faire progresserle groupe (option partage), et à la fois de stimulerles individualités par des modalitésd'opposition systématiques qui limitent leséchanges (option concurrence).

International audience; L’Australie a organisé la dernière Coupe du Monde de rugby en 2003, et la France prépare la suivante en 2007. Ces deux pays ont accueilli et développé, chacun à leur façon, le rugby à XV, et comme dans le reste du monde l’implantation de ce sport est le résultat de diffusions de pratiques à partir des foyers émetteurs de Grande-Bretagne. Mais ces diffusions prennent des configurations particulières ; les diffusions simples à la manière d'une tache d'encre dont les auréoles gagneraient progressivement en surface ne se réalisent en effet qu'à petite échelle car les contraintes physico-climatiques, culturelles et politiques dressent des barrières gênant la réalisation du modèle théorique. Dans certains cas, on assiste à une diffusion sans ordre à partir des marges plus que des centres, mais la combinaison du modèle et des conjonctures locales favorise des interprétations novatrices. A ce niveau, il est utile de réfléchir aux conditions de diffusion et d’implantation du rugby, notamment en France et en Australie, et de préciser quelques caractéristiques sociales des pratiquants de ce sport dans les deux pays.

National audience; Les méthodes d’entraînement se sont développéesau fil du temps, avec les expériences successivesdes entraîneurs et les performances des sportifs.Les Cahiers de l’Entraîneur se fixent pour missionde proposer un support aux connaissances relativesà l’entraînement, plus précisément aux techniquesde l’entraînement.Depuis plus d’un siècle, les méthodesd’entraînement ont bien changé, mais bien peud’entraîneurs ont pris le soin de consigner leurtravail, parce que ce n’était pas la culture de l’écritqui prévalait alors…Se retourner, en s’intéressant à ce qui a déjà été faitsur le plan des descriptions techniques, paraîtaujourd’hui nécessaire pour mesurer l’évolutiondes pratiques, mais aussi pour envisager le cheminqu’il reste à parcourir encore.Comme dans l’édition précédente, les Cahiers del’Entraîneur maintiennent leur désir d’effectuer unretour en arrière, pour rendre hommage auxentraîneurs qui par leur travail ont contribué à bâtirles techniques de l’entraînement.La transmission des connaissances pratiques estfondamentale, pour ne pas avoir à réinventer sanscesse ce que d’autres avaient déjà envisagé par lepassé.«Les secrets du crawl» illustrent bien l’avancée desconnaissances techniques en natation. Siaujourd’hui le crawl est indiscutablement la «nagelibre» de référence, elle restait encore bienmystérieuse au début du XXe siècle.

National audience; Cet article veut redorer la place de la tactique dans lapréparation à la compétition.La tactique1, tous les entraîneurs en parlent, toussavent de quoi il s’agit. Elle est particulièrementprésente dans les sports collectifs et reste en trame defond de la réussite dans les sports individuels. Il estdifficile d’intégrer cette dimension à l’entraînement,aussi préfère-t-on privilégier la plupart du temps lecoeur de la discipline (la technique) au détriment de latactique. Pourtant lors de chaque compétition lesquestions tactiques ne manquent pas et viennentcorrompre l’expression technique. Alors comment«s’entraîner à la tactique» ?Le judo de compétition est aujourd’hui pratiqué par desathlètes particulièrement bien entraînés. L’engagementphysique est tel qu’on se demande bien oùest passée son origine philosophique «utiliser la forcede l’adversaire». L’universalité de la discipline a encoreaccentué le dilemme en mettant en scène descombattants redoutables venant de tous les continents.En général le travail de planification de l’entraînementest axé sur la dimension physique et les séances sontimprégnées de technique. Si la tactique est un desdéterminants de la performance, il paraît important dese pencher sur la possibilité de l’intégrer aux autresdimensions de l’entraînement. Nous verrons quemême en judo, sport physique et technique, de combatde surcroît, il est possible de mettre en place dessituations visant à augmenter le potentiel tactique desjudokas et d’organiser leur progression sur cettequestion.

International audience

National audience; L'entraînement d'hier… Nous avons souhaité dans les «Cahiers de l'INSEP» effectuer un retour sur les conceptions de la préparation sportive des glorieux anciens entraîneurs. Une occasion de leur rendre hommage, mais également de mesurer l'éventuel chemin parcouru depuis. Une façon de se rappeler que l'activité sportive reste en perpétuelle évolution et que, sans cesse, l'entraîneur doit chercher à innover, améliorer, créer, pour toujours tendre vers l'excellence. Quoi de plus naturel que d'entamer cette série d'articles consacrés à l'entraînement d'hier par un écrit d'un des entraîneurs les plus respectés et reconnus dans le monde de l'athlétisme : Joseph Maigrot. L'article qu'il rédigea en 1949 dans le bulletin de l'Institut National des Sports aborde différents aspects du 400 mètres haies qui, à l'époque, rappelons-le, était couru sur une piste en cendrée (ce qui explique en partie qu'il était alors exclu qu'un coureur effectue moins de 15 foulées entre les intervalles !). L'entraîneur abordait différents aspects de la spécialité qui servent encore aujourd'hui de supports de réflexion à nombre d'entraîneurs contemporains. Il est question d'habilité, d'équilibre, de répartition d'effort, de grande «relaxation»… des préoccupations bien actuelles ! Notons enfin que Joseph Maigrot met l'accent (figure 4, page 37) sur un retour de jambe bien discutable. A l'époque, apparemment, cette faute échappait à «la vision des juges et n'était pas sanctionnée»…

L’objectif principal de cette recherche est l’amélioration de la connaissance à la fois démographique et sociologique des licenciés de la F.F.M.E. en liaison avec le « produit licence ». Pour répondre à cet objectif et sur la base des travaux déjà réalisés sur cette question, la stratégie de recherche adoptée a été construite sur la base d’une interaction quantitatif/qualitatif. Elle s’est décomposée en trois phases d’étude, chaque phase permettant de mieux préciser les interrogations de la phase suivante : une phase exploratoire, une phase quantitative et une phase qualitative.

International audience; Ce projet commun Fédération Française d'Athlétisme et INSEP, a pour objet de déterminer les raisons du moindre niveau du 1500 mètres féminin français comparé au niveau masculin de la même discipline.

International audience; Purpose. – Investigate the influence of previous swimming on energy expenditure during the subsequent cycling exercise of a triathlon.Methods. – Ten well trained triathletes underwent 3 swim-to-cycle transitions and 1 isolated cycling trial (C trial). The cycling exercises consisted in 15 min on a bicycle ergometer at a power output corresponding to the ventilatory threshold +5 %. During the transitions, this exercise was preceded by swimming bouts soliciting different muscles, undertaken at a 750 m competition pace for the same duration (swimming with arms and legs: Sal trial, with arms only: SA trial, or with legs only: SL trial).Résultats. – The swimming bouts of SA and Sal trials involved a significant increase in energy expenditure during subsequent cycling in comparison with isolated cycling (P < 0.05). Moreover, cycling efficiency was not significantly different between SA and SAL trials (P > 0.05).Conclusion. – A short intense swimming leads to an increase in energy expenditure during subsequent cycling, because of the thermoregulatory adjustments and the additional oxygen cost of respiratory work involved during swimming. It also shows that physiological adaptation during cycling does not depend on the lower limb work during prior swimming; Objectif. – Étudier l’influence d’une épreuve de natation sur la dépense énergétique dans l’exercice de cyclisme subséquent lors de l’enchaînement cyclisme–natation d’un triathlon.Méthodes. – Dix triathlètes entraînés ont participé à 3 enchaînements natation–cyclisme et une épreuve isolée de cyclisme (épreuve C). L’exercice de cyclisme comprenait 15 minutes sur ergocycle à une puissance correspondant au seuil ventilatoire +5 %. Durant les enchaînements, cet exercice était précédé d’épreuves de natation sollicitant différentes masses musculaires, réalisées pendant la même durée à une allure de compétition sur 750 m (nage avec les bras et les jambes : NC, nage avec les bras uniquement : NB, nage avec les jambes uniquement : NJ).Résultats. – Une augmentation significative de la dépense énergétique en cyclisme est observée à la suite des épreuves de natation NB et NC, par rapport à l’épreuve isolée (p < 0,05). En revanche, le rendement du cyclisme est identique dans les conditions NB et NC (p > 0,05).Conclusion. – Une épreuve préalable de natation intense altère la dépense énergétique en cyclisme, notamment par les ajustements thermorégulatoires et le coût du travail respiratoire qu’elle induit. L’adaptation physiologique en cyclisme ne semble pas dépendre de l’importance du travail des jambes en natation.

National audience; Les activités de glisse regroupent des disciplines traditionnelles, comme le ski alpin ou le ski nautique, organisées par des fédérations importantes, et des activités plus nouvelles telles que le roller, le skate, le surf, qui se développent souvent en dehors des cadres fédéraux. Leurs pratiquants sont plutôt jeunes, bien insérés économiquement. Ils sont relativement peu licenciés, mais participent souvent à des compétitions.

International audience; The purpose of this study was to compare the electromyographic (EMG) signal of the vastus lateralis muscle obtained during a run section of a triathlon and at the end of a prolonged run performed at the same running velocity. Seven subjects were studied on three occasions: a 2 h 15 min triathlon (30 min swimming, 60 min cycling, and 45 min treadmill running at 75% of the maximal aerobic speed), a 2 h 15 min run, where the last 45 min (Prolonged Run, PR) were run at the same speed as the Triathlon Run (TR) on a motorized treadmill, and a 45 min Isolated Run (IR) performed at the same TR and PR velocity. The three experimental trials were randomised. Oxygen uptake (VO 2), heart rate (HR), and EMG data were recorded during the three run sections. The results confirm a greater VO 2 and HR during PR compared with IR (P < 0.01) and TR (P < 0.05). Also the VO 2 values obtained during TR were significantly greater compared to IR (P < 0.05). EMG signal, obtained from the vastus lateralis muscle during 4 sec of isometric contraction at 35% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), showed that after PR the mean power frequency (MPF) shifted significantly to lower frequencies (P < 0.01) compared with MPF recorded before the prolonged run. Moreover, the signal amplitude (RMS) was increased significantly after PR in comparison to pre-trial (P < 0.01). Similar resuits were obtained for the TR at P < 0.05. The integrated EMG flow, QIEMG (iEMG/burst duration), recorded during all run sections, was significantly increased near the end of PR (i.e. 2 h 10 min of running) compared with QiEMG recorded after 1 h 30 min of running. No significant increase in QiEMG was observed with TR and IR situations. The results suggest that a long exercise bout of running led to a greater increase in muscle fatigue compared with a triathlon or an isolated run performed at the same running speed. In addition it is suggested that the rating of perceived exertion recorded during isometric contractions is a good indice to approach the level of fatigue during prolonged exercices.