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Journal Article; Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections pose major public health problems because of their prevalence worldwide. Consequently, screening for these infections is an important part of routine laboratory activity. Serological and molecular markers are key elements in diagnosis, prognosis and treatment monitoring for HBV and HCV infections. Today, automated chemiluminescence immunoassay (CLIA) analyzers are widely used for virological diagnosis, particularly in high-volume clinical laboratories. Molecular biology techniques are routinely used to detect and quantify viral genomes as well as to analyze their sequence; in order to determine their genotype and detect resistance to antiviral drugs. Real-time PCR, which provides high sensitivity and a broad dynamic range, has gradually replaced other signal and target amplification technologies for the quantification and detection of nucleic acid. The next-generation DNA sequencing techniques are still restricted to research laboratories.The serological and molecular marker methods available for HBV and HCV are discussed in this article, along with their utility and limitations for use in Chronic Hepatitis B (CHB) diagnosis and monitoring. Yes

Streptococcus pneumoniae remains an important cause of bacteremia worldwide. Last years, a decrease of S. pneumoniae penicillin- resistant isolates has been observed. The objec- tive of this study was to describe the episodes of bacteremia due to S. pneumoniaeduring a peri- od of 11 years. Epidemiological and clinical data, serotypes causing bacteremia, antibiotic susceptibility and prognosis factors were stud- ied. Over a period of 11 years, all the episodes of S. pneumoniaebacteremia were analysed. Their clinical and microbiological features were recorded. Statistical analysis was carried out to determine risk factors for pneumococcal bac- teremia and predictors of fatal outcome. Finally, 67 S. pneumoniae bacteremia episodes were included in this study. The majority of cases were produced in white men in the middle age of their life. The main predisposing factors observed were smoking, antimicrobial and/or corticosteroids administration, chronic pul- monary obstructive disease and HIV infection, and the most common source of bacteremia was the low respiratory tract. The main serotypes found were 19A, 1, 14 and 7F. Seventy-seven per- cent of these isolates were penicillin-suscepti- ble, and the mortality in this serie was really low. Statistical significance was observed between age, sex and race factors and the pres- ence of bacteremia, and there was relationship between the patient's condition and the out- come. In our study, S. pneumoniaebacteremia is mainly from community-acquired origin mainly caused in men in the median age of the life. 40% of bacteremias were caused by serotypes 19A, 1, 7F and 14. During the period of study the incidence of bacteremia was stable and the mortality rate was very low. In adults, the majority of cases of pneumococcal bacteremia are asso- ciated with pneumonia, while in children the primary site of infection is frequently unknown. The overall mortality rate for pneu- mococcal bacteremia is 15-20% among adults, with the rate increasing to 30-40% among eld- erly patients. Since introduction of the 7-valent pneumo- coccal conjugate vaccine (PCV7), the estimat- ed annual incidence of invasive disease (including bacteremia) in the USA has decreased. 4 However, together with reduction in invasive disease due to serotypes encom- passed in PCV7, non PCV7 serotypes have emerged. 5 Moreover, for several reasons, a decrease of S. pneumoniae penicillin-resistant strains has been observed last years world- wide. Clearly, there is a need for evaluation the new serotypes related with these episodes, the susceptibility evolution to penicillin and other antibiotics and clinical aspects to this infec- tion. Thus, the aim of this study was to describe the episodes of bacteremia due to S. pneumoniae during a period of 11 years in our health area. Epidemiological and clinical data, serotypes causing bacteremia and prognosis factors were analysed.