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The author reports on the food and the analysis of faecal pellets of Gallotia atlantica on Fuerteventura (Canary Islands, Spain). The results show that this lizard is omnivorous, but feeds predominantly on insects. It uses a wide range of food, especially Diptera, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera (Formicidae), and adapts quickly to natural changes in food resources. After rainfall and the emergence of new growing vegetation, insect larvae (especially caterpillars) are increasingly eaten by the lizards. Finally, in one of the faecal samples little bones and scales were found and revealed a case of cannibalism in this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lepidodactylus lugubris is an all-female parthenogenetic gecko. This gecko consists of diploid and triploid clones in the tropical and subtropical regions, and Clones A (diploid) and C (triploid) cohabit most islands in Ogasawara, Japan. On some Ogasawara islands, another cosmopolitan, but sexually reproductive, gecko Hemidactylus frenatus coexists with L. lugubris. This situation offers a unique opportunity to examine interactions not only between asexual female clones of L. lugubris but also between L. lugubris and both sexes of H. frenatus. We induced behavioral contests for food in small laboratory enclosures between two individuals of different clone, sex, and species combinations. Clone C interacted with other individuals less frequently and had a lower success in feeding the prey than Clone A and both sexes of H. frenatus. Clone C also showed few aggressive behaviors such as arches, growls, bites, and lunges, and never wrestled with other individuals. This interactive tendency of Clone C helps explain the microdistribution patterns of these sympatric geckos in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cannibalism is a recurrent behavior across the animal kingdom, with important ecological and evolutionary consequences due to its potential trade-offs on the fitness of involved individuals and demography dynamics. Cannibalism has been reported in eight species of several phylogenetic lineages within Liolaemus, a highly diverse genus of Neotropical lizards. Within the Liolaemus montanus series, two species are reported to eat juveniles in captivity. We observed a female Liolaemus orientalis, another L. montanus series member, which had ingested a juvenile of its own species in the wild. As it generally happens with other lizards, cannibalism in Liolaemus has been suggested to be performed by the larger sex, with L. chiliensis being the only other case observed until now in which the cannibalistic individual was a female. The fact that females are slightly smaller than males in L. orientalis means that our observation is an exception to previously observed trends. We suggest that there is a relationship between this behavior and the presence of a masculine trait in the cannibalistic female: developed precloacal pores. We also discuss how refuge availability may influence demography and the probability of dispersing juveniles encountering adults, increasing the chances for cannibalism to play some role in population density regulation. El canibalismo es un comportamiento recurrente en el reino animal, con importantes consecuencias ecológicas y evolutivas, debidas a sus potenciales efectos sobre la eficacia biológica de los individuos implicados y las dinámicas demográficas. El canibalismo ha sido descrito en ocho especies de varios linajes filogenéticos dentro de Liolaemus, un género de lagartijas neotropicales altamente diverso. Dentro de la serie de Liolaemus montanus, se conocen dos especies que comen juveniles en cautividad. Observamos una hembra de Liolaemus orientalis, otro miembro de la serie de L. montanus, que había ingerido un juvenil de su propia especie en estado salvaje. Al igual que ocurre generalmente con otros saurios, se ha sugerido que el canibalismo en Liolaemus es realizado por el sexo más grande, siendo hasta ahora L. chiliensis el único otro caso conocido en el que el individuo caníbal era una hembra. El hecho de que las hembras son ligeramente más pequeñas que los machos en L. orientalis, convierte nuestra observación en una excepción a las tendencias observadas previamente. Sugerimos que puede haber una relación de este comportamiento con la presencia de un carácter masculino en la hembra caníbal (poros precloacales desarrollados). También discutimos cómo la disponibilidad de refugio puede influir en la demografía y la probabilidad de que los juveniles en dispersión se encuentren con adultos, aumentando las posibilidades de que el canibalismo juegue algún papel en la regulación de la densidad poblacional. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Snakes play an important ecological role, interacting with other species and feeding on some that are considered pests and illness vectors. The present work aims to list the snake species present in the Municipality of Ituiutaba, southeastern Brazil. The data were obtained from preserved specimens deposited in zoological collections, visual surveys and occasional encounters. Fifty-seven individuals were analyzed, and we identified twenty-three species, distributed in five families. The number of species found is relatively high, considering the advanced degree of alterations in the natural environment, where only 15% remains intact. In our sample, we identified individuals of two viperid genera with medical and pharmacological importance. The present study contributes to the knowledge on snake assemblages in the Cerrado, and emphasizes the importance of inventories of the local fauna, mostly in environments with anthropic action, resulting in loss of habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Turtles (Testudinata) are a diverse group of reptiles that conquered a broad set of habitats and feeding ecologies over the course of their well-documented evolutionary history. We here investigate the cranial shape of 171 representatives of the turtle lineage and the relationship of shape to different habitat and diet preferences using two-dimensional geometric morphometrics. The skull shape of extant turtles correlates with both ecological proxies, but is more affected by habitat than diet. However, the application of these correlations to extinct turtles produces mostly flawed results, as least when compared to external data such as sedimentary environment, highlighting that the morphospace held by extant turtles is not necessarily the optimal location in tree space for a particular ecology. The inability of this study to correctly predict the ecology of extinct turtles is likely related to the fact that the shape of turtle skulls is dominated by the emarginations and jaw closure mechanisms, two shape features unrelated to habitat or feeding ecology. This indicates that various specializations that are apparent in the skull only contribute little to overall shape. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evolution and function of the long neck in plesiosaurs, and how the problems associated with stiffness or flexibility were overcome during feeding, or rapid swimming during predator avoidance, are explored, and a new interpretation for the function of the plesiosaur neck is presented. Based on the anatomy of the articular faces of contiguous cervical vertebral centra, neural arches, and cervical ribs, the plesiosaur neck was mainly adapted for ventral bending, with dorsal, lateral and rotational movements all relatively restricted. Predominant ventral bending indicates the neck was adapted for use beneath the body, suggesting feeding in the water column, close to the sea floor, or within soft sediments on the sea floor. A new model is proposed for the plesiosaur bauplan, comprising the head as a filter, straining, sieve feeding or sediment raking apparatus, mounted on a neck which acted as a stiff but ventrally flexible feeding tube, attached to the body which acted as a highly mobile feeding platform. Numerous features of plesiosaurs, including cranial and dental form, cervical vertebral morphology, body shape and limb-based propulsion, conform to this model. Comparative data from modern organisms support this novel explanation for the structure and function of the plesiosaur long neck. This integrative analysis offers an explanation for the evolution of the plesiosaur long neck as a key evolutionary novelty, and why this apparently enigmatic feature remained a prominent feature of plesiosaurs throughout their long evolutionary history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There have been a number of attempts to explain how crocodylian bite-force performance covaries with cranial form and diet. However, the mechanics and morphologies of crocodylian jaws have thus far remained incongruent with data on their performance and evolution. For example, it is largely assumed that the functional anatomy and performance of adults tightly fits the adult niche. At odds with this precept are groups with resource-dependent growth, whose juvenile stages undergo shifts in mass, morphology, and resource usage to overcome strong selection related to issues of small body size, as compared to adults. Crocodylians are an example of such a group. As living suchians, they also have a long and fossil-rich evolutionary history, characterized by analogous increases in body size, diversifications in rostrodental form, and shifts in diet. Here we use biomechanical and evolutionary modeling techniques to study the development and evolution of the suchian feeding apparatus and to formally assess the impact of potential ontogenetic-evolutionary parallels on clade dynamics. We show that patterns of ontogenetic and evolutionary bite-force changes exhibit inverted patterns of heterochrony, indicating that early ontogenetic trends are established as macroevolutionary patterns within Neosuchia, prior to the origin of Eusuchia. Although selection can act on any life-history stage, our findings suggest that selection on neonates and juveniles, in particular, can contribute to functionally important morphologies that aid individual and clade success without being strongly tied to their adult niche. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While herbivory is a common feeding strategy in a number of vertebrate classes, less than 4% of squamate reptiles feed primarily on plant material. It has been hypothesized that physiological or microbial limitations may constrain the evolution of herbivory in lizards. Herbivorous lizards exhibit adaptations in digestive morphology and function that allow them to better assimilate plant material. However, it is unknown whether these traits are fixed or perhaps phenotypically flexible as a result of diet. Here, we maintained a naturally omnivorous lizard, Liolaemus ruibali,ona mixed diet of 50% insects and 50% plant material, or a plant-rich diet of 90% plant material. We compared parameters of digestive performance, gut morphology and function, and gut microbial community structure between the two groups. We found that lizards fed the plant-rich diet maintained nitrogen balance and exhibited low minimum nitrogen requirements. Additionally, lizards fed the plant-rich diet exhibited significantly longer small intestines and larger hindguts, demonstrating that gut morphology is phenotypically flexible. Lizards fed the plant-rich diet harbored small intestinal communities that were more diverse and enriched in Melainabacteria and Oscillospira compared with mixed diet-fed lizards. Additionally, the relative abundance of sulfate-reducing bacteria in the small intestine significantly correlated with whole-animal fiber digestibility. Thus, we suggest that physiological and microbial limitations do not sensu stricto constrain the evolution of herbivory in lizards. Rather, ecological context and fitness consequences may be more important in driving the evolution of this feeding strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An 8-week feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the potential of partial replacement of fish meal with rendered animal protein blend ( APB) [meat and bone meal (MBM): expanding blood meal (EBM) = 4 : 1] in the diet of juvenile Chinese soft-shelled turtle Pelodiscus sinensis. Seven isonitrogenous and isoenergetic practical diets replacing 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60% fish meal protein by APB were formulated. Weight gain, feed efficiency, protein efficiency and the apparent digestibility coefficients ( ADCs) of dry matter and gross energy in the experimental diets all exhibited no significant difference ( P > 0.05) when dietary fish meal was replaced for 0-40%, but decreased significantly ( P < 0.05) with further increasing substitution levels. However, relative feed intake, ADC of lipid as well as the contents of whole-body moisture, protein, lipid and ash all showed little differences ( P > 0.05) among all the treatments. Nitrogen retention and the ADCs of protein and most amino acids all decreased significantly ( P < 0.05) when fish meal was substituted by more than 30%. The results indicated that fish meal in the practical diet of juvenile Chinese soft-shelled turtle could be replaced by 30-40% using a combination of MBM and EBM without negative effects on growth performance, nutrients digestibility and body composition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although nesting ecology is well studied in crocodilians, there is little information on the diet and feeding habits of nesting females. During the annual dry season (November-December) of 2012, we studied the diet of female spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) attending nests (n=33) and far from nests (n=16) in Piagaçu-Purus Sustainable Development Reserve (PPSDR), Central Amazonia, Brazil. The proportion of empty stomachs in nest-attending females was larger, and the occurrence of fresh food items was lower when compared to females not attending nests. Fish was the most frequent prey item for non-nesting females, while terrestrial invertebrates and snail operculae were the prey items most commonly recovered from stomachs of nesting females. Our study demonstrates that, despite enduring periods of food deprivation associated with nest attendance, nesting females of C. crocodilus still consume nearby available prey, possibly leaving their nest temporarily unattended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We studied the feeding ecology ofEutropis multifasciatain the tropical plains of central Vietnam to understand better the foraging mode, spatiotemporal and sexual variation in dietary composition, and rarefaction curves of prey-taxon richness for males and females. Stomach contents (n = 161) were collected from October 2013 to May 2014 using a nonlethal stomach-flushing technique. A total of 680 food items (624 animal items and 56 plant items) was found in 161 stomachs of skinks, representing 19 unique animal categories. We found that the diet ofE. multifasciatais composed mainly of small, sedentary and clumped prey and that this skink specialises on spiders, insect larvae, snails, grasshoppers and crickets (with a combined importance index of 60%). Dietary composition, prey size and total prey volume inE. multifasciatachanged between dry and rainy seasons and among regions. The total volume of food items consumed by males was larger than that of females, and the diversity and evenness index of prey categories were larger in males than in females. However, using rarefaction curves revealed that females have the higher prey-taxon richness after points between 130 and 140 prey items for frequency, and between 160 and 170 prey items for number of items, and the differences were not statistically significant. The foraging behaviour ofE. multifasciatabest fits a ‘widely foraging’ model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the diet of the endemic teiid lizard Aspidoscelis calidipes in the Balsas-Tepalcatepec Basin in the state of Michoacán, Mexico, during 2010 and 2011. We removed, analyzed, and identified stomach contents to order or family. The diet of A. calidipes consisted of 27 prey taxa and the dietary diversity was low (H′ = 0.45). Termites and ants were the most important prey items. Adult and juvenile lizards consumed greater proportions of termites than any other prey item by number, volume, and frequency. Diet diversity of juveniles was higher (H′ = 1.15) than that of adults (H′= 0.28). Dietary overlap between adults and juveniles was 49%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the main aspects of natural history is trophic ecology, which affects survival and population size. In the present study, we registered the contribution of prey types to the diet of Physalaemus ephippifer and tested for differences in diet according to sex and season (rainy and dry) of three populations of P. ephippifer in eastern Amazonia. We analyzed frequency of occurrence, trophic amplitude, feeding overlap, and food importance index for each prey category. We analyzed 102 specimens (69 males and 33 females) and observed that the most important prey categories were termites and ants. The most important prey category for females during rainy season included coleopteran larvae, whereas during dry season the most important prey category was termites. In both seasons, the most important prey category for males was ants. We did not observe any seasonal or sexual variation in the diet of P. ephippifer. On the other hand, during the rainy season, coleopteran larvae and termites were the most important prey categories for females, which have a more nutritious diet than males. Increase in nutritional value of the diet of females coincided with the reproductive period, when females would require a greater amount of energy for gamete production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural variation in stable isotope ratios is a useful tool in diet studies. However, the correct interpretation of isotopic data is reliant on proper estimates of discrimination factors. This study aimed to describe the magnitude of the discrimination factors of carbon and nitrogen isotopes between diet and tissues (Δ13Ctissue-diet and Δ15Ntissue-diet) of the Broad-snouted Caiman ( Caiman latirostris) and to verify potential differences between age classes. The isotopic ratios of carbon and nitrogen (δ13C and δ15N) were determined in samples of two tissue types (claw and scute) collected from 18 captive animals and in 15 samples of their diet. The Δ13Ctissue-diet was 1.2 ± 0.1 ‰ for claw and 0.9 ± 0.2‰ for scutes; the Δ15Ntissue-diet was 1.1 ± 0.1‰ for claw and 0.8 ± 0.2‰ for scutes. These values were much lower than the values assumed commonly in ecological studies (3-5‰), and similar to a previous study with crocodilians. Our results emphasize the need to determine discrimination factors specific to taxa instead of assuming average values derived from the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A feeding study was conducted to evaluate the effects of an exogenous phytic acid diet on the dietary magnesium (Mg) requirement for soft-shelled turtles. Juvenile soft-shelled turtles, Pelodiscus sinensis , were fed diets that contained 36, 160, 357, 630, 947, 1249, or 1560 mg/kg Mg and 11 g/kg of phytic acid for 8 weeks. Weight gain of turtles generally increased as dietary Mg increased up to approximately 630 mg/kg followed by a plateau stage till 1560 mg/kg. The plasma alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, carapace strength and concentration of Mg in the tissue generally increased as dietary Mg concentrations increased from 36 to 947 mg/kg. However, increases in Mg beyond 947 mg/kg caused the Mg concentrations in the tissue and carapace strength to remain constant. When 11 g/kg of phytic acid was added to the diet and broken-line analysis used weight gain as the indicator, the dietary Mg requirements for soft-shelled turtles was estimated at 715 mg/kg. This is a 10% increase from the requirement reported for turtles fed a phytate-free diet. A dietary intake of 970 mg Mg/kg is recommended to further enhance carapace strength and plasma ALP activity in soft-shelled turtles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The big-headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum) is heavily harvested to support tremendous demands from food and pet markets, and thus its ecology remains poorly understood. The presence of self-sustaining populations in Hong Kong (22°09'-22°37'N, 113°50'-114°30'E) provides important opportunities to advance our understanding of this species. We employed mark-recapture surveying, radio-tracking of two gravid females, and directed streamside searches to document the reproductive ecology of the species between September 2009 and June 2011 in Hong Kong. We found seven gravid females between 20-27 June 2010 and 2011, and which subsequently oviposited on average three eggs (range 2-8), with mean length and width of 36 mm and 21 mm, in early July. There was positive correlation between the size of females and clutch sizes. We found one clutch in leaf litter 1.6 m away from the stream, which hatched between 14 to 18 October. The incubation period was estimated to be between 103 and 110 days. The results of this study provide important information to formulate conservation plan for this endangered species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In French Guiana, a French overseas territory located in the South American northern coast, nearly 50% of Salmonella serotypes isolated from human infections belong to serotypes rarely encountered in metropolitan France. A reptilian source of contamination has been investigated. Between April and June 2011, in the area around Cayenne, 151 reptiles were collected: 38 lizards, 37 snakes, 32 turtles, 23 green iguanas and 21 caimans. Cloacal swab samples were collected and cultured. Isolated Salmonella strains were identified biochemically and serotyped. The overall carriage frequency of carriage was 23.2% (95% confidence interval: 16.7–30.4) with 23 serotyped strains. The frequency of Salmonella carriage was significantly higher for wild reptiles. Near two-thirds of the Salmonella serotypes isolated from reptiles were also isolated from patients in French Guiana. Our results highlight the risk associated with the handling and consumption of reptiles and their role in the spread of Salmonella in the environment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Micrablepharus maximiliani (Reinhardt & Luetken, 1861) is a microteiid lizard widely distributed in the open areas of South America. Little is known about its ecology and reproductive biology. Here, we analyzed aspects of the natural history of a population of M. maximiliani from a Cerrado area in the state of Piauí, northeastern Brazil. Our results suggest that the reproductive activity of M. maximiliani might be seasonal in the Cerrado, since reproductive females were observed only in the dry season, whereas reproductive males were present in both seasons. Vitellogenic follicles and oviductal eggs were found simultaneously in one female, suggesting that females may produce more than one clutch per season. Sexual dimorphism was observed in body shape, and individuals were mainly restricted to a typical savanna physiognomy. The diet consisted of small arthropods, including spiders, crickets and cockroaches as the most important items. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analysed faecal samples and conducted direct observations to determine the feeding habits of native Indian rock pythons, Python molurus molurus in Keoladeo National Park (KNP), Bharatpur, India from October 2007 to September 2009. Pythons fed throughout the year except winter (December-February). Feeding was related to monthly mean minimum temperature (r=0.423, p<0.05), variation in temperature (r=-0.671, p<0.01) and rainfall (r=0.695, p<0.01), but was not associated with prey abundance, monthly mean ambient temperature or humidity. A wide range of prey species belonging to mammals, birds and reptiles was consumed. This study enhances our knowledge of the diet of the Indian rock python in its native habitat and further defines its feeding ecology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural and sexual selection are frequently invoked as causes of sexual size dimorphism in animals. Many species of turtles, including the Diamond-backed Terrapin (Malaclemtjs terrapin), exhibit sexual dimorphism in body size, possibly enabling the sexes to exploit different resources and reduce intraspecific competition. Female terrapins not only have larger body sizes but also disproportionately larger skulls and jaws relative to males. To better understand the relationship between skull morphology and terrapin feeding ecology, we measured the in-lever to out-lever ratios of 27 male and 33 female terrapin jaws to evaluate biomechanics of the trophic apparatus. In addition, we measured prey handling times by feeding Fiddler Crabs (Uca pugnax), a natural prey item, to 24 terrapins in the laboratory. Our results indicate that although females have disproportionately larger heads, they have similar imout lever ratios to males, suggesting that differences in adductor muscle mass are more important in determining bite force than jaw imout lever ratios. Females also had considerably reduced prey handling times. Understanding the factors affecting terrapin feeding ecology can illuminate the potential roles male and female terrapins play as top-down predators that regulate grazing of Periwinkle Snails (Littorina irrorata) on Cord Grass (Spartina alterniflora). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We studied the diet ofEnyalius bilineatus(Leiosauridae: Squamata) at the Inhotim Institute, southeastern Brazil, through induced regurgitation. We obtained 27 individuals using pitfall traps with drift-fence, active search, opportunistic encounters and capture by persons not directly involved in the study. We quantified prey availability at the site using pitfall traps and used electivity indices to identify preferred prey items based on ingested and available prey. Preferred prey included Lepidoptera larvae considering number of prey ingested and Orthoptera considering volume ingested. We obtained the available data on diet ofEnyaliusspecies from the literature and compared a phylogenetic distance matrix with a diet dissimilarity matrix, showing that phylogenetically closer species tended to have less dissimilar diets. We used independent contrasts to show that environmental impact did not reduceEnyaliuspopulation trophic niches, excluding the effects of phylogeny on niche breadth. Species ofEnyaliusmay adapt to some disturbance in their habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses findings of a study which determined the foraging behavior and diet composition of the Tropidus hispidus (T. hispidus) and T. semitaeniatus lizards found in Caatinga, Brazil. It describes the climatic conditions and trophic ecology of the Serido Ecological Station where the species was studied. Researchers used the Mann-Whitney U test for determining the seasonal diets and mean size of food ingested by the male and female species, while foraging intensity was observed based on number of moves, time spent stationary, and number of attacks on prey items.

The article focuses on a study conducted to find out energetics of the Lizard Cnemidophorus Tigris and an analysis of wide-foraging Cnemidophorus for the reproductive season. Topics discussed include requirement of energy budget for reproductive production, metabolism associated with reproduction, and rates of production related to different food-acquisition modes.

The article offers a report on incidents of predation on giant earthworms by individuals of the brown-banded water snake Helicops angulatus (H. angulatus), a member of the tribe Hydropsini. It focuses on the eating behavior of the aquatic snakes, under the report. It informs that the frogs, their tadpoles, and aquatic lizards are prey for H. angulatus. Predation on earthworms has been reported for several Neotropical snakes including Thamnophis, Storeria, Virginia. The report states that Giant earthworms in the family Glossoscolecidae are the abundant and reliable food resource for H. angulatus.

Reptiles are key components of modern ecosystems, yet for many species detailed characterisations of their diets are lacking. Data currently used in dietary reconstructions are limited either to the last few meals or to proxy records of average diet over temporal scales of months to years, providing only coarse indications of trophic level(s). Proxies that record information over weeks to months would allow more accurate reconstructions of reptile diets and better predictions of how ecosystems might respond to global change drivers. Here, we apply dental microwear textural analysis (DMTA) to dietary guilds encompassing both archosaurian and lepidosaurian reptiles, demonstrating its value as a tool for characterising diets over temporal scales of weeks to months. DMTA, involving analysis of the three-dimensional, sub-micrometre scale textures created on tooth surfaces by interactions with food, reveals that the teeth of reptiles with diets dominated by invertebrates, particularly invertebrates with hard exoskeletons (e.g. beetles and snails), exhibit rougher microwear textures than reptiles with vertebrate-dominated diets. Teeth of fish-feeding reptiles exhibit the smoothest textures of all guilds. These results demonstrate the efficacy of DMTA as a dietary proxy in taxa from across the phylogenetic range of extant reptiles. This method is applicable to extant taxa (living or museum specimens) and extinct reptiles, providing new insights into past, present and future ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article describes the feeding of an omnivorous bog turtle. Topics covered include the use of berries in feeding the species, the benefit of Epipremnum aureum plants in filtering the turtle tanks and the tendency for the turtle to feed on the Epipremnum plants. Also mentioned are the other feeds given to the turtle such as plantain and duck weed.

The article offers a report on cannibalism and ophiophagy in African cobras. Topics discussed include natural feeding habits of snakes; trade-off between the costs and benefits of the behavior are the causes of Cannibalism in animal feeding; and influence of cannibalism on aspects of intersexual and intrasexual competition. It also mentions feeding behavior of wild cobras.

The article examines the foraging behavior of Natrix maura viperine snake in an artificial stone structure on the seashore in San Adrià del Besós, north-eastern Spain in September 2012. Topics mentioned include the observations of the snake in the process of consuming Anguilla anguilla adult eel and a ringneck blenny Parablenius pilicornis, marine behaviour of the snake, and survival of the snake in sea water.

The article discusses the results of a study that examined the diets of the eastern Australian lizard Varanus varius. It was observed that the lizard consumed insects, with unidentified larval Coleoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera found in its diets. The study noted that Varanus varius occasionally consumed some plant materials. Frugivory was reported in the three members of the Varanus olivaceus species-group of the Philippines, Varanus bitatawa, Varanus mabitang and Varanus olivaceus which feed in the wild near ripe fruit. Occasionally consumption of molluscs and crustaceans indicated that Varanus varius is omnivory.

The article discusses the strategies to improve environmental conditions to provide better care and health for reptiles in captivity. It states that enclosed housing areas should have enough space for the reptile to show natural behavior and activities to decrease the risk of stress and obesity. Several topics are discussed including ways to promote better nutrition by changing food presenting skills, and behavioral training methods without damaging trust between trainer and reptile.