Search

• Gelatine and rosin-sized rag papers, rosin-sized chemical pulp and copy papers were identified. • The overall condition of the collection is "good", slightly damaged but stable. • Ferrous ions identified in 74 % of the manuscript inks but corrosion is not severe. • Papers from after 1840 exhibit lower pH and lower mechanical resistance. • Aqueous treatments should be avoided: manuscript inks of all periods are soluble in 0 % and 25 % alcohol. The Norwegian Sea Trade Archive (NST Archive) from the University of Bergen Library, Norway, is part of the UNESCO documentary heritage and contains unique documentation of the activity of companies that traded in stock fish in Norway and Europe (16th-20th century). The archive consists primarily of bound paper manuscripts written mostly in brown ink. We have surveyed this collection using a multi-analytical approach focused on the material characterization and condition of the paper carrier and inks. Our main aim was to support decision-making on establishing storage conditions, digitisation priorities, and type and extent of conservation treatments necessary to make the collection accessible. After a first visual examination to detect and quantify damages, for the paper support analysis we measured surface pH, paper thickness and water absorbency. Additionally, on a quarter of all tested materials, we performed a SurveNIR analysis, providing information regarding paper pulp type, lignin, protein and rosin content, degree of polymerization, and mechanical properties. The archival material was grouped into three periods characterising the three milestones in paper production: handmade gelatine-sized rag papers, machine-made rag papers with gelatine and rosin sizing, and papers made from processed wood pulp. Regarding the manuscripts' inks, we used iron and copper tests to determine the presence of Fe2, Cu2+ and Cu+ions, respectively. For the visual characterization and condition rating of the inks, we used the protocols described by the Netherlands Institute for Cultural Heritage. The variety of ink colours and thickness of the inked lines encountered in each document was noted down. Thus specific tendencies present in each historical period became apparent. Results of the solubility of ink in water and alcohol significantly narrowed treatment options. General tendencies of paper and ink degradation based on differences in papermaking were observed. Surface pH measurement, SurveNIR pH, rosin and protein concentration data showed that most rag papers were of poor to fair quality (pH ≤ 6.0 and low protein content (< 5 %)). Rosin-sized papers dated after 1840 had a lower pH (from 3.3 ± 0.2 to 5.0 ± 0.2) compared to gelatine-sized ones. Based on the obtained results, the overall condition of all the papers is good – slightly damaged but stable. The inks are not severely corroded, and there is no loss of text, although 20 % of the collection does show signs of iron-gall ink (IGI) corrosion. A limited number of documents, mostly before 1800, would require local antioxidative treatment. Due to the low pH of all the papers and the detection of ink corrosion, the collection should be stored in a cool environment, with low relative humidity. After the survey, digitisation priorities were also established. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of China Pulp & Paper is the property of China Pulp & Paper Magazines Publisher and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Graphical abstract Highlights • For studying degradation kinetics of complex lignocellulosic papers, the cellulose peak (C) in multimodal the MMD was deconvoluted. • Two deconvolution methods which use SEC-MALS data are proposed to determine M r without the disturbance of HC or LCC fractions. • M r , k and E a close to cotton linter paper were obtained with the deconvolution method based on a calibration curve built with pure cellulose. Abstract Complex cellulosic samples are often difficult to analyse with size-exclusion chromatography. The strong molecular associations of hemicelluloses and lignin with cellulose produce multimodal molar mass distributions (MMD) that are difficult to interpret. More reliable ways of calculating the molar masses of cellulose are thus necessary. This is particularly relevant when studying the kinetics of paper degradation, as the number average molar mass is the most precise indicator. In this study various data handling methods based on the deconvolution of bimodal and multimodal MMDs of complex cellulosic samples after SEC-MALS-DRI analysis are examined in order to propose more accurate paper degradation rates. Two deconvolution methods, which do or do not rely on polymer calibration curves were developed and were applied to several kraft and groundwood pulp papers unaged and hygrothermally aged. The deconvolution methods are discussed and evaluated in light of calculated cellulose activation energies, degradation rates and paper usable lifetime predictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The life expectancy of a transformer is closely related to the ageing state of its paper insulation. This paper presents novel markers for ageing characterization of paper insulation in oil-filled transformers based on the dispersion staining colors of cellulose fibres. Accelerated thermal ageing experiments were performed for oil-paper specimens at 120 and 130 °C to obtain aged oil-paper samples of different ageing degrees. The average degree of polymerization (DP), crystallinity index, and refractive index of insulation paper were measured; the experimental results show that an increase in refractive index of insulation paper was observed with the increase of ageing degree. Meanwhile, the dispersion staining colors of cellulose fibres in oil were observed using dispersion staining method; the experimental results show that the refractive index of cellulose fibres detached from insulation paper increases with the increment of ageing degree of insulation paper. Finally, two ageing markers—that is, the primary color ratio-based ratio of blue to red and the primary color ratio-based Mahalanobis distance were presented. Their relationship with DP and ageing time of insulation paper were obtained, and were compared with the corresponding relationship with 2-furaldehyde (2-FAL) and carbon oxides. The proposed ageing markers demonstrate an advantage over 2-FAL and carbon oxides and show potential in ageing state evaluation and residual life prediction of paper insulation in transformers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The National Museum in Krakow, Poland, has been carrying out a comprehensive risk assessment for its extensive collections of works on paper. The collection was stratified into primary homogeneous groups such as holdings of works by important artists or large groups of documentary prints or posters. Relative values of the selected groups of objects were estimated based on their market values. The primary groups of objects were further divided into subgroups for different risk scenarios developed by considering varying susceptibility of the subgroups to two key hazards - chemical deterioration and physical failure upon handling. A number of criteria were used: paper brittleness, pH, or the degree of protection of objects against physical forces through containment options defined as framed, matted, contained in albums, or unprotected. Next, the accumulation of damage from the deterioration processes or multiple events for each subgroup of the specific risk scenario was estimated. Finally, the loss of value was assessed by museum staff by considering questions as to how the predicted damage accumulation affects the uniqueness of the work, its artistic value, documentary information, or display potential. The information collected at all stages was introduced into a specifically developed software tool which calculated and presented the magnitudes of risks facilitating the risk evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to determine the cause of foxing on 19th century paper using omics methods, including metagenomics via high-throughput sequencing on the Illumina platform and metabolomics via high-resolution surface-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (SALDI-ToF-MS) imaging using the gold nanoparticle-enhanced target (AuNPET) method. Metabolomic analysis as well as ninhydrin and amido black staining of paper samples showed the presence of proteinaceous substances in areas corresponding to foxing. Products of cellulose biodegradation and microbial metabolites, including yellow-coloured pigments (2-methyl-6-phytylquinol; delta-, gamma- and beta-tocopherols; 3-hydroxy-L-kynurenine) were detected. No difference in metal-ion content was seen between areas with and without foxing. Higher degrees of biodiversity were identified within foxing stains compared to foxing-free areas. Phoma sp. and Cladonia sp. moulds and Gluconobacter and Ralstonia bacteria were predominant in DNA samples obtained from foxing stains. The presence of these microbes has never previously been linked to the phenomenon of foxing. These studies indicate that foxing is a result of a combined effect of microbial action, paper-degradation by microbes, dye production, and chemical changes occurring in paper due to oxidation of cellulose metabolites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Daluang or dluwang is an Indonesian traditional 'near paper' that is made of Saeh, a type of mulberry plant. Daluang or dluwang were used as a writing material in Java during the Islamic era. Cirebon, West Java Province, Indonesia, is one of daluang manuscript collection sources in Indonesia. The manuscripts belong to the local society and the royal family. The objective of this research is to provide a brief history of daluang production and use and to identify deterioration phenomena of daluang manuscripts which belong to the Cirebon society. The data was collected by literature study, interviews and a survey examining daluang manuscripts. The findings from this study are an important documentation of the present condition of daluang manuscripts in Cirebon. Furthermore, this paper offers guidance for a condition survey of daluang manuscript collections and identifies weaknesses in the current practice of preservation, offering suggestions for optimized storage conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungi damage valuable documents mechanically, chemically and aesthetically because they form hyphae, excrete pigments and organic acids, generating particular local conditions that modify the physical-chemical properties of the different documentary supports. The aims of this research were to determine the fungal genera associated with the paper documents biodeterioration and to demonstrate the biofilm formation and the damages. Sampling was done from documents with signs of biodeterioration using sterile cotton swabs. After serial dilutions from the samples, plates with Extract Malt Agar were inoculated and incubated at 30 °C for 7 days. Additional little fragments of the damage zone from each analyzed document were observed using stereomicroscopy, environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). To evaluate the biodeterioration potential risk the strains were grown on cellulose, the acids production and pigments secretion were evaluated too. The genera Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium and Scopulariopsis were predominant. Isolated strains excreted acids into the culture medium; most of them grew well on cellulose and a few excreted pigments. The formation of a mature biofilm and the production of extracellular polymeric substances by fungi, as well as a dense biofouling mainly formed by dust mites, were evidenced by the SEM and ESEM observations. Also the observations showed that these strains were able to attach to paper fibre causing damage on them. The observation under optical microscopy of dead insect found inside the book showed fungal adhesion on the insect body and SEM support that this adhesion was formed by Aspergillus sp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cellobiose, a dimer of glucose wearing a glycosidic bond as in cellulose, was used as model molecule to understand the chemical degradation pathways taking place in iron gall inks impregnated papers. Experiments were carried out in liquid phase at 80 °C to study the effects of pH and of the presence of iron and oxygen on the cleavage of the glycosidic bond. Capillary electrophoresis was used to quantitatively follow the cellobiose degradation and the formation of glucose. Attenuated total reflectance infrared spectroscopy of freeze-dried samples was done to identify the presence of secondary products of reaction. UV-Visible spectroscopy allowed monitoring the iron(II) and iron(III) contents as a function of time and pH. The data reveal that the simultaneous presence of iron and oxygen enhances the degradation of cellobiose. Nevertheless, even if some oxidation of the sugar molecules occurs, the predominant pathway of cellobiose decomposition is found to be acid-catalyzed hydrolysis due to the high acidity of the medium generated from the oxidation and precipitation of iron. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aqueous cleaning of ancient paper samples is a common treatment for the removal of degradation products, external contaminants and salts, which can cause degradation of cellulose by hydrolysis or oxidation processes. The present study examined the influence of selected cleaning treatments on chemical properties of some historical paper samples and studying the efficiency of cleaning methods in removing of degradation products. It also investigated the effects of five different cleaning treatments, namely immersion in deionized water, akapad paper sponge, hydro gellan gum, Cellulose nano Crystal gel and cleaning with wolbers solvent gels on ancient cellulosic paper supports. In particular, the effect of the cleaning treatments on different properties of cellulosic paper supports, namely colorimetric properties (CIE L*a*b* coordinates), crystallinity index (X-Ray diffraction), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy(FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and pH (cold-extraction method), were investigated. The study concluded that all cleaning treatments affected the colorimetric properties of the selected paper samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to assess the changes in chemical and physical properties of selected paper documents, dating from the 18th century to the present date. Paper documents from the 18th, 19th, and 21st centuries had a pH ranging from slightly acidic to alkaline values, whereas paper documents from the 20th century were more acidic. The contents of mannose, glucose, holocellulose, and lignin were significantly correlated with the pH of the paper. High contents of both carboxylic acids (acetic and formic) and the most durable monosaccharide (glucose) were found in the oldest examined paper documents originating from the 18th and 19th centuries. The lowest percentage of brightness was found in paper documents originating from 1920 and 1923. The lowest breaking length was associated with papers originating from 1920. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dluwang was made from the bark of the paper mulberry ( Broussonetia papyrifera Vent.). Old Javanese manuscripts were handwritten on dluwang . Fungi samples from deteriorated dluwang manuscripts from the libraries of royal palaces in Indonesia and from the faculty library of Universitas Indonesia were collected by using cotton swabs and adhesive tape. Fungal isolates were obtained by the culture-dependent method. Identification of 38 fungal isolates was carried out by the molecular method using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of ribosomal DNA. Phenotypic description of the isolates was obtained by classic culturing and direct microscopic observation. The results showed that fungi from the genera of Aspergillus and Penicillium were commonly found on old dluwang manuscripts. According to the molecular identification, species obtained were Aspergillus awamori , Aspergillus clavatus , Aspergillus flavus , Aspergillus fumigatus , Aspergillus jensenii , Aspergillus niger , Aspergillus pulvericola , Aspergillus ruber ( Eurotium rubrum ), Aspergillus versicolor , Penicillium citrinum , Penicillium oxalicum , Penicillium rubens , Pseudocercospora chiangmaiensis , and Trichoderma longibrachiatum . The isolated fungi were xerophilic and cellulolytic in nature. All isolates were able to grow on dluwang paper, 29 isolates (76%) were able to utilize carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and 18 isolates (47%) were able to utilize CMC and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC). The present study showed that the deterioration of the written heritage was potentially caused by diverse fungi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even though gamma radiation application, also at the minimum dosage required for disinfection, causes depolymerization and degradation of the paper substrate, recently published papers seemed, instead, to suggest that γ-rays application could be envisaged in some conditions for Cultural Heritage original documents and books. In some of the published papers, the possible application of γ-rays was evaluated mainly by using mechanical tests that scarcely reflect the chemical modifications induced in the cellulosic support. In the present article the effect of low dosage γ-irradiation on cellulosic substrates was studied and monitored applying different techniques: colorimetry, spectroscopic measurements, carbonyl content and average viscometric degree of polymerization. Two different papers were investigated, a non-sized, non-filled cotton paper, and a commercial permanent paper. To simulate a real deteriorated document, which could need γ-rays irradiation, some samples were submitted to a hydrolysis treatment. We developed a treatment based on the exposition of paper to hydrochloric acid vapors, avoiding any contact of the samples with water. This method induces a degradation similar to that observed on original documents. The samples were then irradiated with 3 kGy γ-rays at a 5258 Gy/h rate. The aforementioned analyses were performed on the samples just irradiated and after artificial ageing. All tests showed negative effects of gamma irradiation on paper. Non-irradiated paper preserves better its appearance and chemical properties both in the short term and after ageing, while the irradiated samples show appreciable color change and higher oxidation extent. Since the Istituto centrale restauro e conservazione patrimonio archivistico e librario is responsible for the choice of all restoration treatments that could be applied on library and archival materials under the protection of the Italian State ( http://www.icpal.beniculturali.it/allegati/DM-7-10-2008-Istituto.pdf ), it has been evaluated that the modifications induced by γ-rays irradiation are not acceptable as safe conservation treatment ( http://www.icpal.beniculturali.it/allegati/Nota_uso_raggi_gamma.pdf ). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to evaluate the biocidal activity of essential oils of Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. and L. M. Perry (nail) and Allium sativum L. (garlic) against different fungal species producing paper biodeterioration. Essential oils (EOs) were obtained from harvested plants in their natural habitat in Cuba, and were tested against the species Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium sp. which were isolated from archival indoor environments and documents with patrimonial value The biocidal activity was studied at different concentrations (70, 50, 25, 12.5 and 7.5%) using the agar diffusion method. The effect of extracts on paper alterations was studied through different techniques including determination of pH and number of copper and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations. EOs were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectroscopy (GC/MS). The determination of inhibition zones by the agar diffusion method of the tested EOs showed a moderate and/or positive effect. The study of the antifungal activity on paper ("in vivo") shows that both clove and garlic oils were potent biocides. Although the paper structure was not affected by EOs pure, some molecular damages were observed at lower concentrations across determinations of the pH and copper number. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungal deterioration is one of the most serious risks for books and paper-based documents in archives. A wide screening for fungi contamination in historic books was conducted by the National Records and Archives, Tanta, Egypt. A large percentage (59.3%) of the screened books showed fungal contamination and deterioration. In this study, the fumes released by smoldering plant species were evaluated for their antifungal activity against isolated fungal species taken from historical documents. Most of the examined plant fumes showed strong antifungal activity as expressed by their minimal inhibitory relative amounts (MIRA), Cinnamomum verum bark and Tamarix nilotica leaves producing the most effective antifungal fumes. Paper samples inoculated with deteriorative fungi were free of fungal growth and viable spores after their exposure to smoldering fumes and incubation up to 28 days. The application of plant smoldering fumes can be recommended as an effective, natural and eco-friendly biocide which can be safely applied to paper based objects in historic libraries and archives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: As a result of use of library and archival documents, defined as reading with handling in the context of general access, mechanical degradation (wear and tear) accumulates. In contrast to chemical degradation of paper, the accumulation of wear and tear is less well studied. Previous work explored the threshold of mechanical degradation at which a paper document is no longer considered to be fit for the purpose of use by a reader, while in this paper we explore the rate of accumulation of such damage in the context of object handling. Results: The degree of polymerisation (DP) of historic paper of European origin from mid-19th-mid-20th Century was shown to affect the rate of accumulation of wear and tear. While at DP > 800, this accumulation no longer depends on the number of handlings (the process is random), a wear-out function could be developed for documents with DP between 300 and 800. For objects with DP < 300, one large missing piece (i.e. such that contains text) developed on average with each instance of handling, which is why we propose this DP value as a threshold value for safe handling. Conclusions: The developed model of accumulation of large missing pieces per number of handlings of a document depending on DP, enables us to calculate the time required for an object to become unfit for use by readers in the context of general access. In the context of the average frequency of document use at The UK National Archives (Kew), this period is 60 years for the category of papers with DP 300, and 450 years for papers with DP 500. At higher DP values, this period of time increases beyond the long-term planning horizon of 500 years, leading to the conclusion that for such papers, accumulation of wear and tear is not a significant collection management concern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main paper conservation methods are presented, classified in the following categories: preparation of the intervention, disinfestation and disinfection/sterilization, surface/dry cleaning, wet cleaning, chemical stabilization, paper repairs, consolidation and strengthening. Treatment documentation is also discussed. The targets, the historical aspects, the general principles, the materials and equipment, the acceptance and criticism pertaining to each method are briefly reviewed, and the most important research for their evaluation is presented. Several paper stabilization strategies, such as deacidification and iron gall ink stabilization, applicable to paper are elucidated. Specific consolidation and strengthening methods for paper, such as lamination and paper splitting are also discussed. The review mainly focuses on the established methods, but experimental, abandoned or insufficiently documented methods are also included. Shortcomings and limitations of several methods were found in the literature, concerning health issues, limited effectiveness, adverse side-effects on the treated artefacts and restricted applicability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brittleness, discolouration, translucency, and solvent sensitivity are a few of the factors that need consideration when conserving transparent papers. These considerations coupled with the large format and the volume of transparent papers in collections makes effective preservation planning difficult. To address this problem a project was initiated to improve the standard of preservation for transparent papers in The National Archives’ collections. The significant outcomes of this one year project were a framework for preservation decision-making, and complementary tools designed to gather information to support better planning and treatment. The tools include survey questionnaires, a condition rating scale, a colour rating scale, and a database to capture information about the condition and types of transparent papers held by The National Archives. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Using only non-destructive analysis [spectrophotometry, pH determination using agarose gel, infrared spectroscopy including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), x-ray fluorescence (XRF), gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP MS)], this study investigated two copies of an early seventeenth century printed book that exhibited severe browning of only one section, the same in each. The results indicated that the browned gatherings had elevated levels of iron, which is known to cause cellulose degradation. The pH between the normal and browned papers was not statistically different as measured but FTIR results confirmed that the browned paper was more degraded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paper is an important material for many applications. During the centuries, it has been the most widely used writing support and therefore paper degradation is a major issue for cultural heritage. The main component of paper is cellulose, one of the most abundant biomaterials on Earth. Cellulose oxidation is mainly responsible for the yellowing of the ancient samples, through the formation of chromophores. In order to investigate this issue and the chromophores' role, we exploit the optical properties combining non-destructive experiments and theoretical calculations based on ab-initio techniques. In this paper, we illustrate the method and show its application to three ancient paper samples. The procedure we describe is a precious tool for cultural heritage preservation: indeed, the approach we present is based on non-invasive and non-destructive measurements that allows a microscopic understanding of cellulose-based artifacts degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inert polyester sheets, such as Melinex and Mylar, are widely used in conservation to create envelope-like enclosures for storing and protecting flat objects (paper, parchment, papyrus, etc.). These materials are known to be chemically stable and present no direct risks to the enclosed items; however, as the films have a low permeability, such enclosures may lead to the creation of internal microenvironments. This will both limit the response to external changes and potentially trap any internally generated volatiles with the object. The likelihood of different forms of enclosures doing so is investigated in this paper. The resulting data will help to inform decisions about choices of construction of enclosures for particular objects, environments and purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paper biodeterioration by fungi has always been a concern in archives, libraries and museums. Several guidelines have been published regarding the prevention of fungal development in paper collections and recovery of affected objects, but what is actually being implemented from the literature by worldwide paper and book conservators? How common is this type of biodeterioration? What needs to be further studied? In order to access this information we conducted an online international questionnaire with participants from 20 different countries. The results show that fungal biodeterioration is highly common in paper collections. All of the respondents already had to deal with paper deteriorated by fungi, and although the vast majority uses active measures to prevent fungal development, most of them have already experienced active fungal infestations. The mainly used preventive measures are the ones concerned with the control of the environmental conditions in storage and display rooms. Drying the affected paper objects and applying 70% ethanol are the most preferred options to stop active fungal growth. The study of non-toxic and safer antifungals is considered here as the most relevant research topic in the area of paper biodeterioration by fungi, meaning that the options currently available are not totally satisfactory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many authors dealing with the phenomenon of foxing on paper point out its microbiological origin, but in fact, foxing-causing fungi can rarely be cultured. Leon Wyczółkowski's drawing 'The Market in Gniew' is an exception in this respect: its paper carrier shows foxing as well as numerous hyphae and cleistothecia, visible to the naked eye either as a white and fluffy coating or as a light yellow powder. Our aim was to investigate their role in the formation of foxing. Microscopic observations revealed uncountable amounts of lenticular spores and spherical asci. Incubation of the yellowish powder on microbiological media enabled the isolation of five strains: Eurotium rubrum, E. repens, Aspergillus versicolor, Penicillium solitum, and Penicillium decumbens. Three of them secreted yellow-colored pigments to the culture media. The reproduction of foxing on test papers with the use of these strains was successful. Brown stains resembling foxing appeared on the samples of all four types of paper placed on 1-week-old colonies of Eurotium rubrum. E. repens and Aspergillus versicolor also resulted in the creation of such stains, but only on some types of paper. It was not possible to determine the source of nutrition of the fungi unequivocally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microbiological contamination with fungi and bacteria can pose a significant destroy to old manuscripts or health hazard to those working in archives or library. Among 520 selected old documents, 162 manuscripts (31.15%) macroscopically showed fungal growth or damage and number of 75 documents (14.42%) were positive for presence of fungi but by culture fungal contamination revealed in 30 manuscripts (5.77%). Also, about 199 representative fungal isolates developed on PDA medium were isolated from old manuscripts samples. Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium spp. were the main contaminating mould genera of all tested manuscripts and account over two third of contaminations. The fungal genera could be arranged on the basis of their frequent occurrence as follows: Aspergillus (45.57%), Fusarium (33.1%), Penicillium (8.6%), Alternaria (6.5%), Trichoderma (3.0%), Stymphylium (1.5%) and Nigrospora (0.5%) of the total fungal count. The obtained data also showed that of the 53 fungal isolates screened for cellulolytic activity on carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) only 31(58.49% ) had the ability to grow. Moreover, only 8 out off 31fungal isolates had a high ability to decompose cellulose powder in Czepek's medium. The growth of A. flavus was completely inhibited (100% inhibition) at rhiozolex concentration of ⩽ 200ppm and benlate concentration of ⩽ 400ppm. While, the growth of A. niger was also completely inhibited at rhizolex concentration of ⩽ 400ppm and benlate at ⩽ 200ppm. The growth of F. oxysporum was completely inhibited by rhizolex at 1600ppm and benlate at ⩽ 100ppm. On the other hand, fumigation with Para formaldehyde tablet for 9 days completely inhibited A. niger growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Huge numbers of cultural objects were damaged by microorganisms after having been soaked with seawater from the tsunami that followed the Great East Japan Earthquake on March 11, 2011. Among the cultural objects that were damaged, paper-based objects in the tsunami area were severely affected. In the present study, a culture-based analysis and on-site investigations were carried out to determine the extent of the microbial deterioration of paper-based objects (i.e., administrative documents and historical documents). Dark-colored fungi were isolated from black-spotted paper as Stachybotrys chartarum, which was observed to grow significantly in mineral salt medium supplemented with cellulose as the sole nutrient source; growth was shown in 10% NaCl. Two isolates from light red-spotted paper were related to Streptomyces sp. and Myxotrichum sp., respectively. These isolates generated red pigments in the mycelia and on the culture plates. Penicillium-related isolates were dominant in the sample tested, and they showed a higher level of NaCl tolerance. From the results of our on-site investigations, a unique discoloration, mainly black- and light red-spotted alterations caused by microbes, was observed on many paper-based objects that had been left wet for several months. The adhesive tape method applied to the black-spotted and red-spotted areas on damaged documents, Stachybotrys, Chaetomium and Cladosporium, and Actinomycetales bacterium were observed, respectively. With regard to the discoloration found on tsunami-affected paper-based objects, Stachybotrys and Streptomyces sp. seem to be responsible for the black- and red-spotted paper alterations, respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The processes of banknote deterioration in circulation and the factors causing this wear have been analyzed to determine the main factors in the process of banknote deterioration in real life circulation and to ascertain which of these factors could be simulated in the process of simulated circulation. The factors that should be taken into consideration during simulated circulation are systematic mechanical and chemical influences on a banknote. The developed Circulation Simulator Method was used to evaluate Ukrainian hryvnia banknotes to obtain artificially deteriorated banknote samples whose optical properties, weight change, air permeability, bursting strength, and stiffness were within the range of corresponding parameter changes for bank notes in actual circulation. The designed method consisted of multiple mechanical damages to tested banknotes by means of centrifugally rotating them within a closed container containing a wearing agent in the presence of a soiling mixture, which imitates the typical composition of soil in banknote circulation within Eastern Europe. The proposed method can be used to determine the durability of materials and to develop manufacturing processes for banknote production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, we present a wide-range spectrochemical analysis of the degradation products from naturally aged paper. The samples obtained from wash waters used during the de-acidification treatment of leaves from a 16th-century-printed book were analysed through NMR, IR, Raman UV/Vis, EPR and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy and HPLC-MS and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) analysis. By these methods we also studied some of the previous samples treated by acidification (sample AP) and catalytic hydrogenation (sample HP). Crossing all the data, we obtained precise indications about the main functional groups occurring on the degraded, water-soluble cellulose oligomers. These results point out that the chromophores responsible for browning are conjugated carbonyl and carboxyl compounds. As a whole, we show that the analysis of wash waters, used in the usual conservation treatments of paper de-acidification, gives much valuable information about both the conservation state of the book and the degradation reactions occurring on the leaves, due to the huge amount of cellulose by-products contained in the samples. We propose therefore this procedure as a new very convenient general method to obtain precious and normally unavailable information on the cellulose degradation by-products from naturally aged paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Upon aging, paper documents and books become progressively damaged. Paper deacidification is a fundamental conservation intervention. In this study, we report on the use of nanoparticles of titanium dioxide (TiO2) and magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) associated with hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) to inhibit acidification, photo-induced degradation, and biodeterioration of paper. With the aid of ultrasound, Mg(OH)2 nanoparticles with a narrow size distribution can be obtained through homogeneous precipitation in water. Furthermore, to demonstrate the efficacy of the nanocomposite and the performance of treated and untreated paper, photo- and thermal-induced degradation is discussed. The results show that using the controlled double-jet precipitation (CDJP) it is possible to synthesize Mg(OH)2 particles with a narrow size distribution (18-87 nm). The nanocomposite of Mg(OH)2-TiO2-HEC increases the durability of paper by imparting fungal growth resistance (D= 34.6 mm), moderate alkalinity (pH = 8.4), mechanical reinforcement (from 817-896 N/m), and UV protection. Additionally, there is a slight color difference (ΔE* = 0.8) between the treated and untreated paper. Both photodegradation and thermal degradation indicate that the paper treated with this nanocomposite (Mg(OH)2-TiO-HEC) has increased stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Mold deterioration of historical library materials in archives and libraries is a frequent and complex phenomenon that may have important economic and cultural consequences. Compactus shelving is one of the systems utilised for the conservation of library materials, because it allows for a more efficient use of space and protection against dust deposition. However, in the last ten years there have been many reports on single species mould infections within Compactus shelves in spite of conventional control of environmental temperature and humidity to recommended standards. Contamination was commonly characterized by white spots of mycelium, measuring 0.5–1.0 cm in diameter and observed on volume binding, especially those of leather, parchment or textile. Until now, the identification of the causal agent at species level has not been reported since attempts to grow it on media for subsequent identification were unsuccessful. Using a range of sampling techniques, including adhesive tape and nitrocellulose membrane, and a combination of conventional culturing methods, direct microscopic observations and molecular methods, we have for the first time identified to species level the fungus causing infections inside Compactus shelves. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Tannin-boron wood preservatives were investigated for their resistance against outdoor agents. This work focused on the analysis of the causes that affect the durability of the tannin-hexamine-treated samples. In particular, dimensional stability, resistance to leaching, and resistance to biological agents were investigated. The combined effect of deterioration agents was evaluated by subjecting the treated samples to simulated and natural weathering tests. The study of the appearance and of the color components (L*, a*, and b*) according to CIELAB space of the exposed samples was monitored to assess the efficacy of the tannin-boron formulations for outdoor applications. Significant resistance against the action of water (EN 84, ENV 1250-2) and insects (EN 47) has been demonstrated in specific tests. Conversely, the continuous stress due to artificial and natural weathering deteriorates the color and the visible features of the treated specimens. The combined effect of moisture modifications, solar exposition, and leaching cycles damages the structure of the tannin-based polymeric network and subsequently it negatively affects its preservation properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the aim of developing a new easy-to-use method for rescuing flood-damaged paper, the effect of saltwater on the inhibition of fungal growth on paper was investigated. This procedure could be used instead of, or assisted by freeze drying. Cellulose-digesting Trichoderma reesei, three types of fungi representative of fungi growing on paper (T. reesei, Aspergillus terreus, and Aureobasidium pullulans) and various naturally airborne fungi were cultured on cellulosic materials in liquid media containing artificial seawater with different salt concentrations. The addition of salts successfully inhibited the growth of T reesei on microcrystalline cellulose at the concentration of 3.2% (m/m) or higher. The critical salt concentration, 3.2%, is within the general range of salt content in seawater. Other solutions of salts similar to sodium chloride also inhibited fungal growth. Although the observed growth-inhibiting effect was attributed to the high osmotic pressure of the salt solution, physiological effects depending on ion species used were also considered to be possible. The growth of all three types of fungi on copy paper was inhibited effectively when the salt concentration was increased. The growth of various fungi on pure cellulose, with enough oxygen supplied to pores, was completely inhibited (as assessed by visual examination) for 24 days at salt concentrations of 3.5% (m/m) or greater. The fact that the effect of saltwater on cellulosic materials was observed even under optimum medium conditions implies that fungi would be considerably inhibited on flood-damaged paper immersed in saltwater. This method is a promising first aid measure when circumstances do not allow for flood-damaged paper to be dried immediately. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paper material produced after about 1850 contains additives that cause progressive acidification of the cellulose matrix, which can result in severe degradation of the material and simultaneous deterioration in its strength properties. This problem has affected whole stocks of libraries and archives, in response to which the process of 'mass deacidification' has been developed. In this study, the structure and chemistry of the active reagent used in the main variant of this process has been identified as magnesium n-propoxycarbonate. The reagent, introduced in an inert fluorinated solvent, neutralizes acids in the paper matrix and simultaneously deposits a reserve of alkaline magnesium salts that counteract re-acidification. At the same time, it is much less alkaline than the magnesium alcoholates so that alkali-induced degradation reactions of cellulose (β-alkoxy elimination) are avoided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A sampling campaign of indoor air was conducted to assess the typical concentration of indoor air pollutants in 8 National Libraries and Archives across the U.K. and Ireland. At each site, two locations were chosen that contained various objects in the collection (paper, parchment, microfilm, photographic material etc.) and one location was chosen to act as a sampling reference location (placed in a corridor or entrance hallway). Results: Of the locations surveyed, no measurable levels of sulfur dioxide were detected and low formaldehyde vapour (< 18 ?g m-3) was measured throughout. Acetic and formic acids were measured in all locations with, for the most part, higher acetic acid levels in areas with objects compared to reference locations. A large variety of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) was measured in all locations, in variable concentrations, however furfural was the only VOC to be identified consistently at higher concentration in locations with paper-based collections, compared to those locations without objects. To cross-reference the sampling data with VOCs emitted directly from books, further studies were conducted to assess emissions from paper using solid phase microextraction (SPME) fibres and a newly developed method of analysis; collection of VOCs onto a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) elastomer strip. Conclusions: In this study acetic acid and furfural levels were consistently higher in concentration when measured in locations which contained paper-based items. It is therefore suggested that both acetic acid and furfural (possibly also trimethylbenzenes, ethyltoluene, decane and camphor) may be present in the indoor atmosphere as a result of cellulose degradation and together may act as an inferential non-invasive marker for the deterioration of paper. Direct VOC sampling was successfully achieved using SPME fibres and analytes found in the indoor air were also identified as emissive by-products from paper. Finally a new non-invasive, method of VOC collection using PDMS strips was shown to be an effective, economical and efficient way of examining VOC emissions directly from the pages of a book and confirmed that toluene, furfural, benzaldehyde, ethylhexanol, nonanal and decanal were the most concentrated VOCs emitted directly from paper measured in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on the rolling test method which is used to evaluate paper deterioration. The study analyzes the correlation between the rolling test and conventional mechanical measurements using paper samples of varying levels of degradation, which are rolled using cylinders of different diameters. The results reveal that samples from the second half of the 1800s are less flexible than samples from other periods, and that groundwood pulp is a potential cause of the deterioration.

The article deals with problems of papers degradation by reason of acidity with reference to the legal duty of libraries to preserve papers funds for the future generations. In lots of efforts to protect its collections, the Moravian library study all the preservative technology including of the mass deacidification technology. The merit of this text is a summarization of project efforts of the Moravian library and the National archives make up the papers protection to deacidification technology in the Czech Republic. The article warms that the acidity of paper research and its conservation depends fully on political environment and the sufficient financial resources. In short there is technique demonstrated that was considered as a purchase for libraries and archives in the Czech Republic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Paper degradation has been studied extensively over the past few decades from both the conservation and the material science perspectives. This review focuses on the quantifiable impacts of the environment and material composition, from the viewpoint of long-term storage of historic paper-based collections. Therefore, temperature, relative humidity and their variation, and pollution are of major interest while photoinitiated processes are covered only briefly. New experiments comparing the effects of the most abundant indoor pollutants (NO2, acetic acid and formaldehyde) and the effects of fluctuating temperature and relative humidity are also presented as part of the discussion. This work highlights the need for revision of the existing dose–response (damage) functions for paper and their further development. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The study focuses on the comparison of the results obtained by size exclusion chromatography (SEC) detection systems using multiangle laser light scattering (MALLS) and/or ultraviolet-visible (UV/VIS) detectors in analyses of cellulose in paper-based heritage objects. The commonly applied parameter for the evaluation of paper degradation stage and kinetics is weight ( M) average molar mass measured by SEC. The main problems addressed here are whether the parameters obtained by various techniques and calibration strategies and in various laboratories can be treated universally and what the sources of the discrepancies can be. The SEC-UV/VIS technique proved to give reproducible results as demonstrated by the interlaboratory correlations. Using various data processing methods and SEC techniques it was also shown that molar masses should only be treated relatively. The differences between the kinetic curves based on the M values obtained from various techniques and processed with various calibration procedures question the reliability of kinetic equations derived using the SEC results to describe the paper degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the non-destructive method of determining volatile paper degradation products in books. It says that solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) methods were applied in different books and paper which quantify the amount and determine the concentration of acetic acid and furfural. Result shows that acetic acid measures from a range of 7-26% in 7 books and the concentration is not related to the age of the book.

Most of the national and international documentary heritage are on paper. From industrialization in the manufacture of such material, paper with acidity levels has been produced which, together with other factors, has been causing the deterioration of this type of documentary heritage. In recent decades, with the incorporation of new paper production processes this problem has been partly solved. The international standards organism ISO has drafted two rules in this connection: ISO 9706 and ISO 11108. With the spread and recommendation for the use of permanent paper for preservation of documentary heritage in the long term, it is essential to know the standards and be well informed. This article describes the variables in the manufacture of paper that influence the permanence of the papers. It also identifies the concepts and history that surround both ISO standards and the main characteristics and component parts of them. The annex provides a glossary of key technical terms used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paper, like all other cultural heritage materials, degrades over time, but conservation slows down the rate of its deterioration. There is a long history of cooperation between microbiologists and conservators of libraries and archival materials, but current approaches addressing paper deterioration need urgent reassessment to take full advantage of modern microbiological methodologies. The present article discusses what we believe are the current priority research areas in assessing microbial risk to paper heritage, and reports studies on a 13th century Italian manuscript and on Leonardo da Vinci''s Atlantic Codex which illustrate the problems and challenges encountered when dealing with microbial investigations of paper artworks. The potential of using a more advanced microbiological approach is highlighted. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Known chemical processes (degradation of woodpaper) and other degradation elements force all libraries with preservation collections to participate in various national grant programs (such as the national program ,,Public Library and Information Services" - PLIS), supranational programs (such as grants from EU) or those organized out of EU (such as FM EHP/Norway). The Research Library in Olomouc demonstrated interest in the last grant (EEA/Norwegian Financial Mechanism) in 2006. The library succeeded with the project Digimon - Digitization and Microfilming of Moravian Newspapers in April 2008. The core of the project is conversion of selected newspapers into a microfilm form and a subsequent selective digitization. Ca 600 000 pages will be converted into a microfilm form and 50 000 pages should be digitized. Periodicals for a protective reformatting were chosen not only from the viewpoint of their degradation, but also from the reason of considering an early Moravian national revival period or ethnic divisions within 60th-70th of the 19th century. The entire project Digimon should be completed in April 2011 and the reformatting center should continue in protective reformatting and selective digitization, so that the preservation collection of periodicals of the Research Library in Olomouc was saved and a comfort for readers improved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Pyrolysis-gas chromatography (Py-GC) has been applied to the evaluation of the deteriorated acidic paper in old books. A tiny piece (ca. 0.25mg) of deteriorated paper was subjected to Py-GC measurement at 300°C pyrolysis temperature. Levoglucosan and its dehydrated form levoglucosenone were typical degradation products while a recent control paper gave rise mainly to levoglucosan. The relative yield of levoglucosenone was much higher for the paper sample taken at the heavily deteriorated marginal part than that in the center of the same page of the old book. Accordingly, levoglucosenone observed in the pyrogram can be used as a marker to evaluate the degree of the deterioration of the acidic paper. The formation of levoglucosenone can be attributed to the slow deterioration process of paper, in which dehydration reaction play an important roll accompanied by the chain scission of cellulose. The Py-GC method for paper evaluation was also applied to clarify the effect of storage conditions and chemical compositions of paper materials to their deterioration processes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The damage to historical documents and books caused by the acidic character of paper is often manifested as a complete loss of their mechanical properties. Deacidification and restoration of archived paper objects require knowledge of the long-term behaviour of paper before and after repair actions. Our study was focused on the investigation of mechanical properties (tensile strength, stretch, tensile index, zero-span tensile strength, folding endurance) of original papers (one alkaline and three different acidic samples) exposed to five methods of dry-heat and moist-heat accelerated ageing. The degree of paper deterioration upon ageing was significantly influenced by the temperature and relative humidity, along with the intrinsic chemistry of the individual paper samples. The correlation matrix evaluated at a 95% confidence level for tensile strength, stretch, tensile index and zero-span showed linear correlations between these mechanical properties for all the paper samples. However, a linear dependence of folding endurance on zero-span tensile strength was found only for alkaline paper, which revealed the highest resistance to the accelerated ageing tests. In addition, the concentration of paramagnetic semiquinone species in the acidic lignin-containing paper samples was monitored by Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The ASTM D6819-02e3 standard for testing the accelerated ageing of paper, published in 2002, recommends using closed glass vials in order to keep the degradation products in contact with the paper and thus permitting a better simulation of the natural ageing conditions inside closed books. In the present study, the actual conditions and their stability inside closed vessels have been evaluated. The necessity of assuring a very high sealing performance (tightness) of the systems in order to avoid leakage of water vapour is the main drawback of this ageing method. Systematic studies presented in this publication tried to monitor this tightness and have provided data that helped to answer the question of what circumstances could lead to achieving its improvement. Both gravimetric monitoring of water content in vials and “in situ” IR measurements of the aged paper humidity have been applied for this purpose. As a result, better sealing materials (gaskets and caps) than those recommended by the ASTM standard, have been found. Additionally, application of a dynamometric spanner for closing the vials is recommended, as this is a guarantee of reasonably high and recurring tightness of the systems used in tests. Nevertheless, the systematic, linear with time, loss of moisture for all used vials was observed. A 9% loss of the initial moisture content in samples of the aged paper was observed for the tested conditions (14 days at 90°C). Therefore, it seems that including some kind of gravimetric control for ageing tests performed in closed vessels is of essential importance. Kinetic studies of accelerated ageing in both closed and open systems, as monitored by DP and breaking length measurements, unexpectedly show that no statistically meaningful difference of degradation rates can be observed. On the other hand, the pH and whiteness index values reveal a meaningful difference between the rates of ageing in these systems, thus confirming the basic assumption of the ASTM test concerning the interaction of paper degradation products with the paper itself. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Paper is subjected to numerous biodeterioration processes, which may cause the irreversible degradation of important documents and works of art. Many chemical and physical factors can affect these processes and their behaviour, and fungi seem to play a key role in biodeteriorating paper materials. This study is mainly aimed at verifying the presence of fungi in biodeteriorated 18th century etchings, and characterizing the paper surface by means of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and fluorescence under UV radiation. The laboratory tests highlight the presence of fungal entities from all the samples investigated. Specifically, 14 species were identified; three of them were never isolated from paper until now. Furthermore, the data gathered do not confirm the theory according to which there is a correspondence between fluorescence of the stains under UV radiation and the vitality of microfungi. Finally, possible correlations among paper composition (as determined by FTIR), mode of conservation and fungal attack are presented and discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article offers information on the antioxidants for treatment of transition metal that contains inks and pigments. It is said that corrosive iron and copper ions and acids in iron gall inks cause paper degradation. The project "InkCor" proposes the use of tetraalkylammonium bromides, combined with magnesium ethoxide in alcoholic solution. A study is conducted to compare the stabilising effect of alkylimidazolium bromides to aqueous calcium or magnesium phytate treatment. It is observed that there were no negative side effects on the colour of the ink.