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As with many other countries, South Korea is increasingly ethnically and linguistically diverse – the result of changing patterns of migration and transmigration in a globalised world. However, despite these developments, South Korea retains a strong emphasis on public linguistic homogeneity in standard (Seoul-based) Korean, its national language, and related linguistic hierarchies of prestige that privilege this standard at the expense of other Korean language varieties. This combination is demonstrated clearly in the case of North Korean refugees to South Korea. Despite speaking the same language, their dialect and accent are consistently pathologized in South Korean higher education (HE) and the wider society. This article reports on a study of the experiences of linguistic discrimination faced by North Korean refugee students in South Korean HE, its often-negative consequences on North Korean students’ social and academic identities, and their strategies for mitigating and, at times, actively contesting this discrimination. The article concludes that, despite South Korea’s increasing demographic and, related, linguistic diversity, little has been achieved yet in addressing, and changing, the endemic linguistic discrimination that North Koreans face daily in HE and the wider South Korean society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Refugees from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds and geopolitical locations face temporal challenges during their transition, yet more research needs to be conducted to understand their time conception in the host society. This study explores how North Korean refugees from remote rural areas in North Korea and China adjusted their time conception in a metropolitan city in South Korea. Data were collected through a pilot study (January-March 2017) and ethnographic fieldwork (February-July 2018), entailing semi-structured interviews, informal conversations, and field notes. Vygotsky's psychological tool and Ricoeur's interpretive approach were employed to solicit the mediation of time conception through organizational activities and narrative meanings. The analysis reveals themes that challenge refugees' time conception reflecting North Korean values and daily activities—Kimilsungism, collectivism, and task-oriented attitude—and the changes in time conception on the sense of the self. Refugees' learning in time conception is a holistic spiritual, social, and personal process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines and reviews the impact of China's household registration system, hukou, as a legal and administrative basis of the legal and social personhood of North Korean refugee (NKR) women in China and their children born to Chinese fathers. It argues that China's stringent nationality policy, along with the hukou system, left not only NKR women but also their intermarriage children with the precarious status of "nonexistence." Recent hukou reform efforts are expected to lift legal obstacles for the children of intermarried couples to obtain hukou without penalty. This change, however, does not signal a fundamental shift toward inclusive policy. Rather, it demonstrates the Chinese government's increased control over the bodies of these children for the purpose of mitigating the impact of demographic change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By applying empirical research methods, a new survey index measuring the "Entrepreneurial Spirit Index" has been developed and tested among North Korean defectors residing in South Korea. By focusing on four commonly cited personality traits in entrepreneurship literature: opportunity-seizing, risk-attitude, innovativeness, and self-efficacy, the results indicate that the interviewees highly exhibited opportunity-seeking personalities and a strong risk attitude. However, their innovation skills and self-efficacy showed lower outcomes indicating a need for adjusted entrepreneurial education. A high 'entrepreneurial spirit' was negatively related to gender and seemed to correlate with education and occupation. To foster business growth and create positive effects for the defector community, we recommend using this index for identifying North Korean defectors with a high entrepreneurial spirit and providing entrepreneurial support according to their personality traits and needs. The index also serves as a tool to measure the entrepreneurial spirit of individuals regardless of location, national heritage, age, gender, or education, making it suitable for comparative analysis across borders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study utilises the National Health Insurance Service of Korea (NHIS) data which include the results of annual and bi-annual health screening of North Korean refugees together with indicators of their employment and earnings and investigates the relationship between the refugees' health and labour market outcomes. We find that the refugees with poor health significantly underperform healthy refugees in the labour market, and the impact of poor health at the time of entry lasts longer than 10 years. We also find that poor health has greater detrimental effects on refugees than on non-refugees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As of December 2023, 34078 North Korean refugees live in South Korea, raising concerns about social exclusion and marginalization. A Straussian grounded theory study analysed the experiences of 17 female North Korean refugees in South Korea, highlighting a disparity between their legal rights and everyday participation, especially in education. Educational inequality for North Korean refugee students persists, stemming from academic deficits and institutional barriers. To cope, they employ a strategy of 'being one of them', aiming to blend in as South Korean peers while concealing their heritage. This approach fosters confidence and supportive relationships, aspiring the development of an inter-Korean identity that values their North Korean heritage and embraces a sense of belonging in South Korea. The study sheds light on the necessity of adopting a social perspective in multicultural education, emphasizing the importance of intergroup dialogue in promoting inclusive representation of North Korean refugee students within the educational setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: As more and more North Korean refugees settle in South Korea, they are compelled to adapt to a “digitalized” society. This study examines whether there are differences in digital capital between North Korean refugees and South Korean citizens, and examines the sociodemographic factors associated with the distribution of digital capital. Methodology: This study used data from the 2019 Digital Divide Survey conducted by the Ministry of Science and ICT in South Korea and conducted OLS regression analysis. Findings: The results show how the three forms of traditional capital—economic, social, and cultural—are differently associated with the distribution of digital capital in each group. All forms of traditional capital are fully associated with the distribution of digital capital across South Korean citizens, whereas traditional capital is partially associated with the distribution of digital capital across North Korean refugees. Practical Implications: The results imply that new forms of capital, called digital capital, are also distributed across North Korean refugees and various policies are needed to prevent inequality among North Korean refugees due to uneven distribution of digital capital. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geographic resettlement induces acculturative stress in refugees. In response, they utilize social support to deal with acculturative stress and to adapt to the host community. In this study we sought to understand how North Korean refugees (NKRs) utilize social support to reduce acculturative stress. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 30 NKRs in South Korea and 20 South Koreans (SKs) who were friends or acquaintances of NKRs. Purposive and snowballing sampling strategies were used to recruit participants at two sites. Following a Grounded Theory approach, we analyzed the data using initial coding, focused coding, and constant comparison. We found that NKR participants coped with loneliness by exchanging emotional support with other NKRs who share their lived experiences and by building solidarity with them. NKRs described expanding their social networks to include SKs in order to assimilate into their communities. Many SKs tried to develop family-like relationships with NKRs. While SKs were important resources for informational or instrumental support early on, their roles were sometimes replaced by other NKRs as social ties among NKRs were strengthened. All NKRs who reported that they strategically approached SKs to learn about South Korean culture had held full-time jobs and appeared to be better adjusted to South Korea. Appraisal support was the least reported type of social support, but some NKRs tried to deal with social discrimination through positive appraisal. To reduce acculturative stress, NKRs sought varied types of social support from different kinds of social network members. Findings highlight the need to diversify and strengthen social support for NKRs, thereby fostering coping strategies and reducing acculturative stress.

Although the ubiquity of digital technology among refugees inevitably changes resettlement experiences, studies exploring the utility and usability of mobile applications (apps) centered on refugees' needs and priorities are largely fragmented. Using focus groups with North Korean refugees in South Korea (N = 40), we explored the utility and usability of mobile apps, examined differences in app preferences among demographic subgroups and proposed recommendations for tailored app features. Six themes emerged under two domains: (a) content needs and priorities, and (b) feature preferences. Study findings highlight refugees as both consumers and producers of knowledge with implications for scaling up digital interventions for refugee resettlement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What aids the successful integration of migrants? Most works focus on the host state's policies and goals, but belonging is an interactive process. I examine how migrant beliefs about national belonging – how they see membership in the host society and their relative place in it – shape their integration trajectories. I focus on North Korean refugees in South Korea, a case of co-ethnic integration that naturally controls for many confounders of successful integration and offers a hard test for whether migrant beliefs matter. By combining refugee personal narratives with survey data on their integration outcomes, I develop a theory of how refugees' own belonging ideals act as a perceptual lens that shapes their psychological receptiveness to the host state's integration efforts. This migrant-centric approach sheds light on why certain kinds of integration programs are effective in some places, but not others, and how the belonging aspirations of migrants – beyond their demographic or origin attributes – matter to integration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

North Korean Refugees (NKRs) undergo defection, and this has been shown to impact their current health status in South Korea. However, little is understood about how the defection process is related to metabolic syndrome (MetS). This study regarded the defection process to be a quasi-measurement of traumatic experience and investigated whether defection was a risk factor for MetS among NKRs living in South Korea. This cross-sectional study obtained data from the Korea University Anam Hospital in Seoul. NKRs (N = 847) voluntarily completed questionnaires and underwent at least one medical examination between October 2008 and July 2021. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to evaluate whether the number of countries transited by NKRs was associated with MetS by controlling for covariates. The prevalence of MetS among male and female NKRs in South Korea was 12.3% and 13.3%, respectively. The highest prevalence of MetS (33.4%) was among NKRs who had transited two countries. The number of months in transit countries (mean: 49.9 ± 51.7) and period of residence in South Korea (mean: 40.9 ± 40.9 months) were also considered. NKRs who transited three countries had a higher probability of MetS (odds ratio [OR] 2.660, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.161–6.097) than those who travelled directly to South Korea. NKRs who transited three countries and had only resided in South Korea for a short period had a higher probability of MetS (OR 3.424, 95% CI 1.149–10.208) than those who have lived in South Korea for a longer period. Considering the social vulnerability of NKRs and consequential health problems, there is an urgent need for appropriate support from the government and society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This exploratory phenomenological study sought to investigate North Korean refugees' lived experiences in the North Korean education system through the conceptual framework of Bandura's (1986) triarchic reciprocal determination model to investigate the potential impacts that transitioning to a South Korean alternative school has had on their attitudes toward education, educational satisfaction, and educational behavior. Data were gathered through a survey, followed by semi-structured interviews from 21 secondary school students studying at an alternative school specifically designed for North Korean refugees in the Seoul-metropolitan area to explore their experiences in North Korea and the alternative school, and about their perspectives on how this new educational environment has affected their educational attitudes, satisfaction, and behavior. The students reported that the changes they experienced in educational objectives and focus at the South Korean alternative school positively impacted their educational attitudes, led to feelings of greater satisfaction with their education, and led to increases in their work ethic and focus on study. The results of the study suggest that an educational system that provides North Korean refugees with freedom and support to develop personal skills and knowledge to pursue their aspirations or goals can have positive impacts on the way they view education and the satisfaction they feel from it, which can lead to positive changes in their educational behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many states in the East Asian region (including Northeast and Southeast subregions) are moving away from traditional state-centric governance notions towards accepting a localised variant of 'sovereignty as responsibility' that allows for criticism of domestic policies and limited diplomatic pressure in the event of humanitarian crises. There has been acceptance of the cosmopolitan governance principles of human security and the Responsibility to Protect (R2P). Despite convergence on the R2P however, East Asian states maintain a pluralistic understanding of what it implies and its relationship with human security. Furthermore, refugees form one of the most vulnerable groups in the region precisely because of an ongoing resistance in recognising responsibility for their protection. This paper addresses the performance of different agencies of governance (at the national and international level) in fulfilling their R2P obligations towards North Korean refugees and the Rohingya, the two most prominent (and controversial) regional refugee groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social support may facilitate North Korean refugee (NKR) resettlement in South Korea. However, little is known about how NKRs perceive support. We aim to understand how support exchange and reciprocity evolve throughout NKR migration trajectories and how they are related to psychological well-being. From September to December 2019, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 30 NKRs and 20 of their South Korean (SK) acquaintances. We analyzed data using a grounded theory approach. Prior to arrival in South Korea, NKRs resided in mutually interdependent communities where reciprocation of support was a moral norm. However, support exchange became predominantly unidirectional in South Korea, with NKRs becoming recipients and SKs being givers. Several NKRs expressed discomfort with being dependent on others, preventing them from requesting support when it was needed. SKs also described distress from not receiving minimum levels of reciprocity or gratitude. Some NKRs managed this unease through reciprocating either to the giver or to others in need. Acts of reciprocity were described as sources of happiness, satisfaction, and pleasure, increasing self-esteem. Overall, exchange of support and reciprocity within one's social network may be important and yet overlooked features of relationships that contribute to psychological well-being of NKRs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to assess the interrelationship (comorbidity pattern) between depression and PTSD among North Korean (NK) refugees in South Korea and examine the effects of trauma types at pre-migration, transit, and post-migration stages on both depression and PTSD. Therefore, the study analyzed the data of the 2017 Survey on the Human Right Abuses and Trauma of NK refugees (N = 299) using the Seemingly Unrelated Regression model. The results showed that depression and PTSD have a comorbidity pattern among NK refugees. In addition, the predominant death threat of trauma type at the transit stage had a positive relationship with depression and PTSD simultaneously. Based on these findings, we suggested a transdiagnostic approach and trauma-informed care for NK refugees who suffered from various traumas in the migration stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the humanistic relationship between Korean Chinese and North Korean refugees on the Sino–North Korean border in Zhang Lu's film Dooman River (2010) and delineates how the ethical obligation to "our" people, or brethren (dongpo), is removed by understanding North Koreans as potential criminals. The first part conceptualizes Korean Chinese villagers' ethical obligation toward North Koreans, which I call ethnic ethos, and focuses on how the director preserves the Korean Chinese's conscience by stereotyping North Korean border crossers as "dangerous refugees." The second part focuses on the meaning of ethnic identity that the director pursues, offering insights into the crisis of community in the context of urbanization and globalization, or the "Korean dream." The two types of border crossing—the crossing of North Koreans to China and the crossing of Korean Chinese to South Korea—offer clues to the causes of the crisis of community, in which collective ethics and responsibility to others have been eroded. This article answers questions about the death of a Korean Chinese boy, who voluntarily becomes a stranger by entering into the zone of "nonlife" or refugees. I argue that the boy's death is a sacrifice suggested to audiences by the director in an attempt to preserve the communitarian ethics of Korean Chinese and maintain the value of ethnic identity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: North Korean refugees (NKRs) exhibit alarmingly high levels of depression prior to or immediately after entering South Korean society, which is likely attributable to their pre-migration traumatic experiences. However, prior research on NKRs has simply examined the cumulative effect of trauma on depression. Despite calls for research identifying trauma exposure patterns that co-occur among refugees, to date, no study has investigated distinct profiles of NKRs' pre-migration trauma exposure and their associations with depression in this high-risk population. To better understand the unique mental health needs of NKRs and provide them with tailored care, it is imperative to identify meaningful subgroups of NKRs with distinct profiles of trauma exposure., Aims: Using latent class analysis (LCA), which is a person-centered approach, this study aimed to identify subgroups of NKRs based on trauma exposure and their associations with sociodemographic characteristics and depression levels., Methods: A sample of NKRs ( N  = 405) in South Korea were assessed for depression, pre-migration trauma, and sociodemographic covariates through a self-administered survey. LCA was conducted to identify trauma exposure classes and multivariate ordinary least squares regression analysis was performed to examine associations between trauma exposure classes and depression., Results: The prevalence of clinically significant depression was 47.2% for our study sample. Three classes of trauma were identified: deprivation trauma and witnessing death (59.3%), complex and pervasive trauma (23.7%), and low exposure (17.0%). Members in the complex and pervasive trauma class demonstrated very high probabilities of exposure to all traumatic events and had the strongest association with elevated depression., Conclusions: Our findings underscore the importance of identifying subgroups of NKRs to unravel heterogeneity in trauma exposure and provide more nuanced explanations for different risk profiles regarding depression. These findings also provide evidence for a framework for clinicians to provide individualized resources and trauma-informed services to NKRs., Competing Interests: Conflict of interestThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Since at least 2013, Western courts judging refugee cases have accepted that North Koreans are, with rare exceptions, considered to be South Korean nationals under South Korean law. This Article explores the implications of this holding. Given this dual nationality, are North Koreans necessarily refused refugee status because they can be protected in South Korea? Or are there still routes to refugee status that may be available? This Article finds that North Koreans continue to have potential paths forward in their search for refugee status in the West. There are, broadly speaking, four different types of protection arguments evident in the jurisprudence from major host states. These are: (1) that an asylum seeker possesses a well-founded fear of persecution in South Korea as well as North Korea; (2) that South Korean nationality does not provide a right to enter the country, and should therefore be disregarded; (3) that South Korean nationality should not be recognized because it is not bestowed in a manner consistent with international norms; and (4) that an individual asylum seeker falls into an exceptional category whereby he or she lacks South Korean nationality. Each of these arguments has proved successful in certain cases, at least provisionally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study showcases an International Learning Exchange (ILE) program between North Korean (NK) refugee students in South Korea and American university students from the US. ILE programs connect two or more linguistic/ cultural groups for intercultural awareness, which provide authentic communicative environments. However, the prevalent use of English and research focus mostly on non-native English-speaking students reflect the ideology of native-speakerism embedded in ILE programs. The purpose of this study was to develop an ILE program that resists native-speakerism and to investigate its influences on native as well as non-native English-speaking students. Adopting a case-study approach, data were collected from video-taping, fieldnotes, student documents, surveys, and interviews. Findings show how the authors designed and implemented a principle-based ILE program. The responses of NK students show their growing motivation and communication ability. The responses of American students show their critical reflections on their native-speaker identities. This study offers insights into designing ILE programs based on multilingualism and translanguaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores how North Korean refugees in South Korea navigate different ideologies about language and construct their own language ideologies and identities while adjusting to and learning a new variety of Korean. Drawing on interviews with four North Korean refugees, the study finds that they have suffered from stigmatization because of their socially marked North Korean accents, leading them to internalize a hierarchical view of the two varieties of Korean and to strive to speak like South Koreans. The participants have at times strategically concealed their identities in order to pass as non-North Korean and protect themselves from discrimination. However, the participants have also positioned and repositioned themselves and their linguistic and cultural resources through imagining different possible futures. Challenging the inferior identities imposed on them by the mainstream society, they have constructed imagined identities as valuable assets for a future, reunified Korea. In doing so, they have used their bidialectal and bicultural skills to differentiate themselves from South Koreans and empower themselves. The findings of the study shed light on the complex interactions between language ideologies, language use, and identity construction, with implications for refugee language-support programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

North Korean (NK) refugee women living in South Korea are known to be vulnerable to interpersonal violence, but little is known about the possible link between or co-occurrence of acts of sexual violence (SV) and intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetrated against NK refugee women. This study examined the prevalence of polyvictimization and explored the association between SV in different settings (i.e., North Korea, intermediate countries, and South Korea) and various types of IPV. A convenience sample of 140 adult NK refugee women was analyzed, and logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine the link between SV and polyvictimization in IPV. NK refugee women with a history of SV reported a significantly higher rate of IPV over the previous 12 months (51.2%) compared to those without a history of SV (20.4%). NK refugee women with a history of SV are significantly more likely to become victims of most forms of IPV. SV victimization in intermediate countries significantly increased the odds of being physically victimized by their male partners in South Korea (OR = 3.31, p =.05). An SV victimization history in North Korea (OR = 4.50, p =.04) and SV victimization experienced outside their intimate relationship in South Korea significantly increased the odds of sexual IPV from their current intimate partner (OR = 4.74, p =.03). This study showed that victims of human trafficking and sexual assault during their journey to South Korea were at a greater risk of IPV in South Korea. Male partners of NK refugee women with a history of SV may shame and physically sanction NK refugee women for "breaching honor." Therefore, screening for potential risk of physical and sexual IPV among NK refugee women with a prior exposure to SV is needed to develop programs in safety planning for NK refugee women experiencing SV and IPV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the seroprevalence of antibodies against scrub typhus, murine typhus and spotted fever groups among North Korean refugees within 1 year of their arrival in South Korea. Methods: We recruited North Korean refugees who had settled in South Korea after a short stay in a third country and did not have any health problems. The antibody titer was measured using a commercial indirect fluorescence assay immunoglobulin G antibody kit. Results: The seroprevalence of antibodies against scrub typhus, murine typhus, and spotted fever groups among the 99 participants was 22.2%, 17.2%, and 10.1%, respectively, with 8.1% of participants testing positive for both spotted fever and murine typhus. Conclusions: Refugees may be exposed to rickettsial infections in North Korea and their journey from North Korea. This study is the first to report the seroprevalence of antibodies against the 3 common rickettsial diseases among North Korean refugees. The findings suggest that rickettsial infections should be added to the list of differential diagnoses for North Koreans with fever after entering South Korea.

Jooyoung Lee,1 Sehyun Jeon,2 Somin Kim,1 Yumin Seo,1 Jinme Park,3 Yu Jin Lee,4 Seog Ju Kim1 1Department of Psychiatry, Sungkyunkwan University College of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea; 2Department of Psychiatry, Korea University Anam Hospital, Seoul, Republic of Korea; 3Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany; 4Department of Psychiatry and Center for Sleep and Chronobiology, Seoul National University, College of Medicine and Hospital, Seoul, Republic of KoreaCorrespondence: Seog Ju KimDepartment of Psychiatry, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, 81 Ilwon-ro, Kangnam-gu, #06351, Seoul, 135-710, KoreaTel +82-2-3410-3583Fax +82-2-3410-0050Email ksj7126@skku.eduIntroduction: Attentional deficits and sleep problems are common in refugees who have experienced trauma. In the present study, we used polysomnography (PSG) to investigate the relationship between attentional deficits and objective measures of sleep structure in traumatized North Korean refugees.Methods: We recruited 32 North Korean refugees (mean age = 33.78 ± 14.33 years) and 39 South Korean participants (mean age = 35.03 ± 11.08 years). Sustained attention and divided attention were assessed using the Computerized Attention Test. We conducted an overnight PSG to objectively assess sleep structure. The participants also completed the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R), Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and Insomnia Severity Index (ISI).Results: The North Korean refugees showed more commission errors (CEs, p < 0.05) and a larger standard deviation (SD) of the reaction time (RT) (p < 0.05) in the sustained attention task compared to the South Korean participants. Furthermore, the North Korean refugees showed a shorter period of wake after sleep onset (WASO, p < 0.01), less time spent in N1 (p < 0.05), and more time spent in N2 (p < 0.05). The larger SD of RT in the sustained attention task in the North Korean refugees was positively correlated with WASO (r = 0.62, p < 0.01) and N1 stage (r = 0.47, p < 0.05) after controlling for age, sex, BDI, BAI, and IES-R.Conclusion: The North Korean refugees showed poorer performance on the sustained attention task. Nocturnal PSG revealed shorter WASO and time spent in N1 in this population, which are independently associated with the preservation of attentional capacity. These data suggest that traumatized refugees may compensate for attentional deficits induced by their traumatic experiences via increased sleep continuity.Keywords: attention, sleep, trauma, North Korean refugees

This study examined the conditions for, and mechanisms of, mentoring efficacy against depression symptoms in a random sample of 202 adolescent North Korean refugees living in South Korea. Rhodes (2005) argued that mentoring may benefit adolescents with high parental attachment because social engagement comes easily to them, and that it also may benefit adolescents with weak attachment because of greater need. The present study drew on Rhodes' (2005) theory to postulate curvilinear moderation of the mentoring-depression relationship by parental attachment. Teacher and peer attachment were posited as mediators of the relationship between mentoring and depression. Using fixed effects regression models, Sobel tests, and non-parametric bootstraps to test the hypotheses, a negative association was identified between mentoring and depression symptoms. Results suggested mediation by social withdrawal, and models also found a significant curvilinear moderating effect of parental attachment on the mentoring-depression relationship. These findings suggest that adolescent North Korean refugees with strong parental attachment and adolescent North Korean refugees with weak parental attachment may disproportionately benefit from mentoring as compared with adolescent North Korean refugees who scored in the middle in parental attachment. These results are also consistent with the idea that mentoring may reduce social withdrawal which, in turn, reduces depression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research examines the realities of diaspora through novels depicting North Korean (NK) refugee women and investigates how communities extend hospitality to their gender. The characters in these novels stand their ground as proactive subjects with critical consciousness despite sexual exploitation and social oppression, and therefore they also urge a rethinking of the writer's role in representing the subaltern's voice. I focus on Youth Sonata by Kim Yukyeong and A Third Home by Yi Kyoung-ja, examining the identity choices of NK refugee women as objects of hospitality, the issues of membership in their receiving country, the role of the subject of hospitality, and boundary crossing between subject and object of hospitality. The women depicted in Youth Sonata each have a complicated past and must confront the other within themselves and accept them, becoming the object of their own self-hospitality. In A Third Home with identity conflict between her past and present, a NK refugee woman opens a third space that can accept difference. A scene of intersection in China, where the subject of hospitality becomes a foreigner and the object of hospitality becomes a foreigner with agency, demonstrates the (im)possibility of unconditional hospitality. Presenting NK women refugees' gendered suffering as part of history and the process of accommodating the coexistence of difference in everyday life, the novel suggests that hospitality is possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rates of death by suicide among North Korean refugees are three times higher than those among their host-country counterparts in South Korea. However, social and cultural factors predicting suicidality among North Korean refugees are not well known. Thus, we explored how social networks affect suicidal ideation in a sample of 405 North Korean refugees in South Korea using egocentric network data. Network diversity (number of different types of ties) was a protective factor for suicidal ideation among women. Having a help-providing and trustworthy church-based tie was a protective factor for women, whereas it was a risk factor for men. It is likely that women connected to people in diverse social contexts received more support to effectively deal with adversities. Because South Korean churches provide tailored worship services and financial aid to North Korean refugees, women might receive emotional comfort from church-based ties whom they can trust and receive help from, whereas men might become distressed about being financially dependent on others, which contradicts cultural expectations of a man's traditional role. Our findings have implications for mental health practitioners serving vulnerable populations, and highlight the importance of understanding the cultural context of social networks and gender in suicide research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Suicide among North Korean (NK) refugee women is one of the most concerning public health problems in South Korea. Pre‐resettlement trauma exposure and post‐resettlement factors can contribute to suicide risk among NK refugee women; however, few studies have explored these associations. Methods: This study aimed to assess suicidal ideation and suicide attempts among NK refugee women in South Korea (N = 212) and to examine the impact of pre‐resettlement trauma exposure on suicide risk. Perceived social stigma and self‐concealment in the post‐resettlement phases were investigated as moderating factors for suicide risk related to trauma exposure using multiple regression analyses. Results: Trauma exposure significantly increased suicidal ideation severity and the risk of suicide attempt. Furthermore, perceived social stigma significantly moderated this relationship such that the impact of trauma exposure in the pre‐resettlement phases was amplified as perceived social stigma increased. Conclusion: Based on our study findings, professionals working with refugee populations should assess for perceived social stigma and exposure to traumatic events to reduce and prevent suicidal ideation and attempts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychological distress is prevalent among North Korean refugees, but their associations with forced repatriation to North Korea have not been empirically investigated. In this study, we defined forced repatriation as a constellation of torture experiences and investigated whether forced repatriation is associated with various clusters of psychological symptoms among North Korean refugees. Six hundred thirty-two North Korean refugees participated in this study. Significant differences in the psychological symptoms of refugees with and without the experience of forced repatriation were found. As a result of past exposure to torture, refugees who experienced forced repatriation reported more severe psychological symptoms than their counterparts without such experience. The findings suggest that premigration trauma shares differential associations with different clusters of psychological symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mee-Soo was a good student in North Korea. She came to South Korea in her early teens, and South Korean state policy for North Korean defectors enabled her to gain entry into a decent university in Seoul. She majored in Business Management and, when she had to choose her sub-major, she chose Accounting over Marketing and Human Resources because she thought she could avoid English. Achieving CPA (Certified Public Accountant) status was the goal for Accounting majors. Passing a score of 700 in the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) was a requirement to take the CPA exam. Mee-Soo worked hard studying for TOEIC and took the test ten times. Her score rose from the 400s to the 600s, but she could not pass the 700 threshold and was left behind while other South Korean students passed the English requirement. She could not even begin to study for the CPA exam itself. She once sighed and told me (one of the authors), 'I wish I could have a life without English.' I responded, 'I didn't think English would be so important to North Koreans in South Korea.' To this, Mee-Soo exclaimed, 'It is a matter of survival.' Given there have now been over 70 years of separation between North and South Korea since the Korean War, it is unquestionable that North Korean migrants face and struggle with a variety of troubles in their attempts to settle into South Korean society. In this context, why does English constitute a 'matter of survival' for North Koreans when there are so many other critical issues for these individuals, who crossed several borders at the risk of their lives? This phenomena, that 'English' represents a major difficulty for North Korean defectors in their process of settling in South Korea (Jung & Lim, 2009), constitutes an interesting linguistic phenomena in an intra-ethnic contact. However, by itself, this statement somewhat simplifies how English actually affects the migrant group. Instead, its influence works in a surprisingly diverse number of ways across different ranges and layers within the North Korean population, depending on their regional and social background, age, time of migration, and possibly many other factors. A meaningful pattern we discuss here is the changing relations between English and North Korean migrants according to age; it is the North Korean young adults who seem to be particularly affected by English and disproportionately in need of English teaching. We also note, though, that this pattern itself is changing, as we are seeing the recent increase of children of North Korean migrants born and educated in South Korea or in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to assess the interrelationship (comorbidity pattern) between depression and PTSD among North Korean (NK) refugees in South Korea and examine the effects of trauma types at pre-migration, transit, and post-migration stages on both depression and PTSD. Therefore, the study analyzed the data of the 2017 Survey on the Human Right Abuses and Trauma of NK refugees (N = 299) using the Seemingly Unrelated Regression model. The results showed that depression and PTSD have a comorbidity pattern among NK refugees. In addition, the predominant death threat of trauma type at the transit stage had a positive relationship with depression and PTSD simultaneously. Based on these findings, we suggested a transdiagnostic approach and trauma-informed care for NK refugees who suffered from various traumas in the migration stage.

• A rickettsial seroprevalence survey was conducted among 99 North Korean refugees. • Immunoglobulin G prevalence was 22% for scrub typhus and 17.2% for murine typhus. • Spotted fever immunoglobulin G was less prevalent (10.1%). The aim of this study was to investigate the seroprevalence of antibodies against scrub typhus, murine typhus and spotted fever groups among North Korean refugees within 1 year of their arrival in South Korea. We recruited North Korean refugees who had settled in South Korea after a short stay in a third country and did not have any health problems. The antibody titer was measured using a commercial indirect fluorescence assay immunoglobulin G antibody kit. The seroprevalence of antibodies against scrub typhus, murine typhus, and spotted fever groups among the 99 participants was 22.2%, 17.2%, and 10.1%, respectively, with 8.1% of participants testing positive for both spotted fever and murine typhus. Refugees may be exposed to rickettsial infections in North Korea and their journey from North Korea. This study is the first to report the seroprevalence of antibodies against the 3 common rickettsial diseases among North Korean refugees. The findings suggest that rickettsial infections should be added to the list of differential diagnoses for North Koreans with fever after entering South Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines how the "human rights industry" has used the narratives of North Korean human rights activists and how actors are connected through their networks from a discourse-network perspective. It focusses on the coverage of the three most-cited North Korean refugee activists in the English-language Western media in recent years – Shin Dong Hyuk, Park Yeon Mi and Lee Hyeon Seo – and analyses their memoirs, public speeches and newspaper articles. The study finds that Western publishers have followed Makau Mutua's "savage–victim–saviour" story grammar in their portrayal of the North Korean activists' public discourses and that politically conservative, economically libertarian, ideologically anti-communist and religiously Christian groups have influenced these activists. While the political and material environments provided similar structural conditions for all three activists discussed in this study, there were variations among them in terms of access to resources and their exercise of individual agency. The author argues that by employing the voices and performances of North Korean activists, the human rights industry has played a significant role in strengthening and legitimising the hawkish policy of political conservatives in Seoul and Washington against Pyongyang. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poor health behaviors among North Korean refugees (NKRs) in South Korea are serious risk factors hindering their overall well-being. Despite their significance, little is known about the roles of social networks in promoting health behaviors of NKRs. Thus, we examined how social network characteristics were associated with health-promoting behaviors among 202 NKRs. We found that social networks featuring members of religious organizations were positively associated with overall health-promoting behaviors, health responsibility, exercise, and nutrition, whereas networks with South Korean friends were negatively associated with nutrition. Findings suggest that health interventions facilitating religion-based network ties may promote health behaviors among NKRs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines whether citizen’s satisfaction with police response to their victimization has an effect on the trust in the police. The data ( N = 214) were collected from the North Koreans refugees residing in South Korea. One key finding shows that the North Koreans who were dissatisfied with policemen’s response to their crime victimization cases report lower trust in the South Korean police. Also, the people who had ever reported a crime to the police increase their trust in the police. However, sex, education experience, car ownership, household victimization preventive measures, crime trends decrease their trust in the police. The implications and limitations were discussed for the future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study is to investigate beliefs and experiences about depression in North Korean refugees (NKRs) using both quantitative and qualitative methods. We used an exploratory sequential mixed methods study design with a quantitative survey followed by an in-depth individual interview. We surveyed 329 NKRs who had been in South Korea for at least a year. Eleven participants were selected from the survey sample to complete an additional individual in-depth interview to obtain further understanding about depression among NKRs in their own words and context. About 44% of the sample had mild to severe depression; only 16% indicated that they were being treated for mood disorder. Individual in-depth interviews yielded key themes related to NKRs' depression beliefs and experiences: recognizing depression, factors contributing to depression, overcoming depression, and barriers to seeking help and treatment. Integration of quantitative and qualitative data revealed that although loneliness was one of the prominent subthemes contributing to depression, strong self-determination was noted as being critical to overcoming depression among those who had moderate to moderately severe depression but had no social support. Future efforts should be directed toward an enhanced support network and targeted education about the South Korean healthcare system, particularly in relation to mental health treatment. • It is unclear about depression experiences among North Korean refugees (NKRs). • NKRs in South Korea had high levels of depression with limited social support. • In-depth interviews using vignettes offered emic perspectives on depression in NKRs. • Data integration revealed complex interplays between depression and social support. • Future efforts should help NKRs better understand the South Korean health system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

North Korean refugees in South Korea have been reported as at higher risk of intimate partner violence (IPV). However, few studies have examined risk factors of IPV among North Korean refugees. This study aimed to report the prevalence of IPV against women among North Korean refugees, and compared the risk factors of IPV against women between South Koreans and North Korean refugees in South Korea. Data from a nationwide survey about domestic violence in South Korea were used. The rate of IPV against women by North Korean refugees was 57.1%, which is considerably higher than that of South Koreans (9.9%). The regression analysis indicated that North Korean refugees perpetrated partner violence against women more frequently than South Koreans, even after controlling for socioeconomic factors. Child abuse victimization and witnessing IPV between parents were the main factors of IPV against women among South Koreans. On the other hand, stress and a tolerant attitude toward using violence were significantly associated with IPV against women among North Korean refugees. The findings suggested that stress management and education on reducing tolerance to violence should be provided to prevent IPV against women among North Korean refugees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2019, 33,523 North Korean refugees were granted citizenship and lived in South Korea. There is growing concern that rather than guaranteeing participation, their citizenship is associated with marginalization, alienation, and isolation. Guided by an occupational science perspective and Straussian grounded theory, this study explored how they participate in society through engaging in everyday activities using 10 semi‐structured interviews that were analyzed using open, axial, and selective coding. It found that the South Korean governmental stance toward reunification, compounded by ethnic homogeneity, eased the participants' transition to the host society. In response, participants engaged in or pursed activities they hoped would prove useful for the reunification of Korea. Readying for reunification encapsulated a meaning participants attached to their everyday activities while pursuing citizenship of South Korea. This article concludes by recommending the urgent need for social outreach initiatives, where North Korean refugees utilize their trans‐national knowledge for the reunification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been an influx of school-aged North Korean refugees defecting to South Korea in recent years. Research examining their integration into South Korean schools has shown that these students consider English to be one of the biggest obstacles to their academic endeavors. However, not much attention has been paid to examining the difficulties that they face in English classes and how one might help them. The current study examines North Korean refugees' experience with English at a private university in South Korea, focusing on their prior educational experiences and their struggle with mandatory English courses. It further reports on how the foundational English courses implemented for these students have fared to date. Data were collected via surveys and interviews with refugee-background students and their instructors. The results are discussed in light of the students' pre-university experiences, with reference to Bourdieu's theoretical framework of capital resources and habitus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the number of South Koreans, especially those in their 20s and 30s, in favor of unification with North Korea decreases, it is not surprising that younger generations feel a lack of closeness or familiarity with North Korean refugees in South Korea. Targeting South Korean adolescents' ambivalence toward unification and North Korean refugees is a talk show called Great Friends. Moderated by a South Korean host, Great Friends presents the experiences of a group of North Korean and South Korean youth. Given the current social climate surrounding North Korean refugees in South Korea, this study investigates how North Korean youth on this program are discursively constructed over the course of 17 episodes aired in 2015. Considering the unequal power relations between the host country and refugees, this study applies critical discourse analysis (CDA) to interpret how North Korean adolescents are presented to a South Korean audience. The analysis reveals the 'othering' of North Koreans through discourses of difference. Despite presenting North Koreans as friends to South Koreans, these discursive constructions create a dichotomy by positioning North Koreans as inferior to their southern counterparts. The findings contribute to rethinking how authorities promote the integration of North Koreans in South Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the authors explored curricular practices of media education for North Korean refugee youths resettled in South Korea, and investigated the impacts of the media education program on their identity construction. Guided by third space theory and framed within a qualitative research paradigm, this media education program was developed by a group of North and South Korean teaching artists. Multimodal data collected throughout the first year were analyzed thematically with a focus on the discursive construction of identities of North Korean youth participants. The participants were invited to reconsider their identities and address multiple dimensions of lived challenges in a safe media education space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

North Korean refugees in South Korea often struggle to adapt in an ultra-competitive environment that largely centers on capitalistic principles, innovation, and swift development. Additionally, many South Koreans are not well informed about the experiences of North Koreans. It is important to develop a university course that examines the experiences of North Korean people from a multicultural lens with an ultimate aim of promoting global citizenship. This paper provides a framework for the development of a university course that examines the experiences of North Koreans. The conceptual framework is rooted in the five dimensions of multiculturalism (Banks, 2012). Three course concepts are expanded on including: understanding the everyday lives of North Korean people, storytelling and discussion, and global citizenship education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted with a purpose to examine the structural relationship among mentoring network characteristics, mentoring functions, and the work attitudes of North Korean defectors. One hundred twenty-one North Korean defectors participated in the study, who were involved in settlement programs in Seoul, Korea. Amos 20.0 and SPSS 21.0. were used for statistical analysis. According to the developmental network theory, mentoring network characteristics include: network range, number of networks, and network intimacy. Mentoring functions include: career function, role function, and psychosocial function. The results are as follows. Mentoring network characteristics have a positive (+) effect on mentoring functions (β = 0.267, C.R. = 2.329, p < .05) and mentoring functions have a positive (+) effect on work attitude (β = 0.703, C.R. = 6.748, p < .001). Mentoring characteristics also have an indirect effect on work attitude through mentoring functions (β = 0.188). The results of this study implicate the need for expanding mentoring networks and developing mentoring functions for North Korean defectors in both formal and informal social network areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]