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Languages that have complex syllable patterns also share linguistic features with each other. These features can be identified through diachronic paths developed by these syllable patterns this study aimed to show the universality of syllabemes in Kazakh and other languages, focusing on questions like evolution of syllables in the Turkic languages; whether a syllable can be called universal in Turkic languages, and whether CV-type syllable be called universal. The study used a qualitative research design to reconstruct linguistic forms in the Turkic languages. This approach is highly valuable for diachronic phonology, which studies existing models of phonological structures and retrospectively determine the proto-language model characteristic of modern languages. This method helps to restore the phonological system of a proto language, by bringing together synchronous slice of one language or different synchronous slices of several related languages. This method is comparative and typological; and focused on both ancient and modern languages including Bulgarian, Chuvsh, Yakut (ancient) and New Turkic languages like Azerbaijani, Gagauz, Uzbek, Turkmen, Kazakh and Tatar. The data revealed the dynamism of the Turkic languages, showing that they constantly changed, developed, and improved. A comparative analysis of closely related languages morpheme was also done to make an etymological reconstruction. The results suggest that highly complex syllable structure is a linguistic type distinct from but sharing some characteristics with other proposed holistic phonological types, including stress-timed and consonantal languages. The study contributes to understanding the syllable theory in diachronic development of syllable patterns and syllable structures.

The objective of this study was to identify the impact of implementing English as a medium of instruction (EMI) drawing upon Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) methodology in science for pre-service teachers. Lecturers specialized in modern languages and science education collaborated to design and implement the CLIL-izing EMI intervention. The sample was made up of 105 students, 55 of whom were given instruction in English, and 50 in their mother tongue, Spanish. Two instruments for motivation in English and science were applied before the intervention, two weeks and one year afterwards. Additionally, an open-ended questionnaire was used with the experimental group to gain a more in-depth insight into student perception of EMI. Results showed that the short intervention had a beneficial effect on motivation towards science content learning in the short and long term, although no differences were detected on motivation to English language learning. The student stance on the experimental instruction of science in English was highly positive.

Linguistics is conspicuously absent from language teaching in UK schools. A-level cultural topics cover a range of themes such as cyber-society, cultural heritage and multiculturalism, but the approach taken to these topics is not informed by linguistics. In previous work, we have argued that this is an unfortunate omission not only because linguistics is appealing to many language students and perceived by them to be useful, but also because the existing cultural topics could be significantly enriched by the inclusion of the critical/analytical study of language itself. In this paper, we provide concrete examples of how linguistics can be integrated into the existing A-level curriculum for Modern Foreign Languages (MFL) in England and Wales. Reporting on a project in which teachers trialled linguistics materials co-created by us (a group of academics) and experienced languages teachers, we present evidence that linguistics materials are perceived to be both highly novel and nonetheless compatible with the existing A-level curriculum. Data from questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with participating teachers also show that: (i) these new materials can be taught with little or no prior experience of linguistics; and (ii) adding linguistics materials to the curriculum leads to significant impacts on teacher and pupil attitudes towards language(s). Despite some challenges, which we also discuss, the results highlight again the great potential of linguistics as a component of language teaching and the contribution that it can make to the enrichment of the discipline.

Language plays a crucial role in education; yet, while issues of language are undoubtedly relevant to all teachers, school-level language policies, which aim to provide explicit guidance underpinned by a clear set of principles, are too often conspicuous by their absence. In a range of educational contexts around the world it has been found that where such policies do exist, they are frequently fragmented and underpinned by monolingual ideologies that do not reflect the linguistic diversity of schools today. The aim of this study, therefore, is to map the provision of school-level policies from a representative sample of secondary schools in England (n = 998) and explore the extent to which they address (either implicitly or explicitly) the following dimensions of language: (a) English, both as the language of instruction and in relation to support for English as an additional language (EAL) learners; (b) modern languages in the curriculum; and (c) other home or community languages. Drawing on an ecologically informed approach, where these three dimensions of language are conceptualised as systems, analysis was conducted to identify areas of divergence and (potential for) intersection. Findings suggest that policies relating to languages, where they exist, are largely compartmentalised and tensions emerged between the various systems. However, we also note several promising points of intersection which indicate that there is scope for developing cohesive and holistic languages policies at a whole-school level.

Authors should attract readers to read their articles from the very beginning of the article; this is important because readers will stop reading an article if they are not sure that they will obtain new, interesting and important information from the article. This study aims to investigate the rhetorical moves found in a research article abstract (henceforth RAA) published in high-impact international journals and how authors employ a research gap strategy (henceforth RGS) in their article abstracts. One hundred abstracts were chosen from ten highimpact international journals in language-related fields (henceforth LRF) for this study. The results showed that the RAAs have at least 4 moves (Moves 2, 3, 4, and 5) while only 55 or 55% of them have an RGS in the abstracts. The most frequent RGS used by the authors was Strategy 2 and the least employed strategies were Strategy 1 and Strategy 4. This implies that, although publishing in high-impact international journals, authors in LRF tend not to use Strategy 1 (nonexistence or absence of research on a particular topic or aspect) and Strategy 4 (contrasting or conflicting previous research findings) in their RAAs but they may address these strategies in their article introductions.

This article considers students in Grades 3 and 4 and their parents' views regarding learning English as a modern foreign language (MFL) in the primary school, through questionnaires in the Muscat region and AL Dahira region, and interviews with students. This study found that Omani people are interested in language learning. Parents were willing to help their children in their learning of English. Given that earlier studies highlighted the benefits of learning an MFL at primary school, learning English at an early age has gained interest in Oman. Students were highly motivated in the MFL classroom due to the learning context activities, tasks and support from their parents. Teachers' contributions also influenced students' positive attitudes to learn English. However, the English curriculum also reveals some difficulties with learning vocabulary, and productive skills (speaking and writing), which suggests that policymakers should frame the primary curriculum according to the needs of MFL Learners.

In Sweden, curricula and syllabi for education are politically determined after public consultations. Thus, these educational documents are discursive trade-offs reflecting research, traditions in the educational system, and political ideologies. This study maps the discourses in the syllabus for Sami as L1 mother tongue for preschool class-Year 9, and mother tongue instruction in media debate 2016-2022. It problematises the educational implications of the language ideologies and tensions in the material. While Sami is accorded the status as mother tongue, it does not have the same status as Swedish or even Modern languages. Mother tongue instruction is promoted as the foundation for learning other languages, and multilingualism as an asset for Sweden as a country, and for the individual. The quality of mother tongue instruction is criticised by Sami and other minorities, as well as by those perceiving mother tongue instruction as a threat to assimilation.

The aim of the research project was to consider whether theoretical underpinnings of the concept of differentiation would help a group of modern languages student teachers develop their understanding and practice of differentiation in the classroom. This was a small-scale inquiry with qualitative data collected from three sources: student teachers, mentors and the course tutor of a one-year initial teacher education programme. The focus of this article is on the student teacher data only, collected via their reflections and responses to specific set tasks. Key findings to date have revealed that: a Postgraduate Certificate in Education course structure based on a theoretical framework with a focus on student learning enabled student teachers to engage in a wide range of effective differentiation strategies; they adopted approaches to differentiation mainly involving different levels of ability; they focused on the individual needs of their learners and adopted an inclusive approach to differentiation. Recommendations include the use of a wide range of theoretical perspectives to support student teachers in making the links between theory and practice explicit; the use of directed reading of theoretical texts; and the adoption of a reimagined definition of differentiation.

Much SDT research in the language learning domain focuses on the learning of English as a second or foreign language, in many cases by undergraduate students. By contrast, our work focuses on adolescent learners (aged between 11 and 16) of what are termed Modern Foreign Languages--languages other than English--in schools in England. In this context, school-level policy means that language learning is often optional for students beyond the age of 14, and this optionality makes motivation critical. In this article, we suggest that Self-Determination Theory provides a suitable framework for measuring the motivation of such students and compare it with the well-known Second Language Motivation SelfSystem (L2MSS) developed by Dörnyei. We draw on data from two large-scale studies of school students in England (N[subscript 1] = 666; N[subscript 2] = 1797), the first to use the Self-Regulation Questionnaire (Academic) in this context, and a smaller pilot study (N = 338), similarly the first to use the L2MSS in this context, and argue that SDT provides a more useful lens for studying motivation in English schools. As the L2MSS relies heavily on the learner's Ideal Self, a version of themselves who can communicate competently in the target language, we argue that it is not suitable for use with learners in this context, although there is scope to incorporate some elements of it. SDT's lack of focus on the target language community, which is not always within reach for students, allows it to better access students' motivation for study. We consider the implications for future studies of student motivation in an English context, as well as other Anglophone settings.

The purpose of this work is to observe and analyze if a group of thirty students of an integrated English e-course could benefit from the explicit teaching of five lexical groups and the pedagogical principles behind the Lexical Approach. These low-intermediate students (CEFR, A2) took an Integrated English e-course at the School of Modern Languages, University of Costa Rica (UCR). To begin with, the target group took a short diagnostic test related to the five lexical groups to determine their prior knowledge on such aspect. To assess the level of improvement reached, the students received explicit instruction on five lexical groups as part of the writing components of this team-taught course. After this, the instructor revised 120 compositions (60 drafts and 60 final versions). Then, after intensive practice through a series of activities based on the Lexical Approach, they took a final instrument to measure how much they have learned throughout the virtual course. The results show a positive effect of explicit instruction of lexical units on student's writing outcomes and their post test.

The interconnectivity of peoples worldwide is sufficient rationale for foreign language learners to develop the relevant competences for intercultural interactions in both local and global--"glocal" contexts. This study presents a conceptualisation of "glocal" competence for Jamaican foreign language teaching professionals from a content analysis of three relevant competence frameworks (PISA, and Byram's and Deardorff's ICC models). It further reports on Phases 1 and 2 of ClerKing, a Franco-Jamaican telecollaborative project between Applied Foreign Languages (AFL) students of English from Clermont Auvergne University (UCA), France, and Modern Languages student teachers of French/ Spanish from Shortwood Teachers' College (STC), Jamaica. Through qualitative content analysis, parameters of "glocal" competences were identified and examined against the different frameworks. Preliminary findings show that student teachers developed negotiation, adaptive, and collaborative skills in their professionalization process. However, local values impeded understanding of and appreciation for alternate worldviews on certain topics discussed. [The page range on the PDF is incorrect. The correct page range is p158-178.]

The study reported in this article was aimed at investigating whether making the findings of second language fluency research accessible to language teachers has an impact on their self-reported understanding of the concept of oral fluency, confidence in promoting it, and classroom practice in short and medium term. The data come from 106 initial and 32 delayed questionnaires, eliciting both qualitative and quantitative data, from second language teachers in England after attending a one-day research-informed and practice-oriented training workshop. The results indicate a positive impact of the intervention on teachers' understanding of fluency, confidence in helping their learners, and self-reported practice in short term, with the impact being reported 10-12 weeks after the intervention. The findings imply that adopting a narrow perspective to defining and conceptualizing fluency is linked with a more in-depth understanding of fluency and enhanced confidence and ability for using fluency-focused classroom activities.

Self-assessment for accreditation purposes requires follow-up of graduates and feedback with academic programs. As part of the improvement actions, this study was done to characterize graduates' methodologies in English language teaching. The data, gathered through questionnaires, showed that graduates privilege the communicative and eclectic methods; the criteria for selecting methodologies are based on their relevance in the teaching context and students' learning needs; furthermore, there is a need and expectation to be updated in methodologies according to the guidelines of the National Bilingual Program. It would be relevant that these results were considered in the curricular development of modern languages and in graduates' professional development activities.

This article presents the preliminary results of an enquiry on the work experience of Colombian language teachers who have entered the workforce in foreign countries. The study aims at unveiling aspects of the personal and professional experience of those graduates that might be relevant for pre-service teachers in local degree programs ahead of their potential move abroad in a growing international mobility context. The study includes data from surveys and personal interviews carried out with a group of 26 participants whose narratives of experience invite one to consider the variables that may either facilitate or hinder one's teaching practice in a foreign workplace and the intercultural communication issues that language teachers may need to deal with. A reflection is brought forward on the needs that teacher training programs at university level in Colombia should address to broaden the scope of their graduates' likely move abroad.

Despite ample research examining second (L2) and foreign language (FL) teacher feedback, research situated in French as a foreign language (FFL) contexts is scarce, in particular studies that examine the beliefs and practices of corrective written feedback (WCF) among FFL teachers. The present study seeks to address this gap by investigating the WCF beliefs and practices of FFL teachers in an undergraduate program in Costa Rica. The participants in this study were five teachers teaching in an FFL program in the Modern Languages School at a large university in Costa Rica. Data were gathered using an online questionnaire, a semi-structured interview, and samples of students' writing with teacher feedback. The findings revealed that the participants held common beliefs concerning writing, teaching writing, feedback provision in an FL, and the interdependent relationship among teaching, learning, and feedback in an FFL writing class. The results also showed that participants' beliefs and practices regarding various aspects of written corrective feedback (CF) tended to be aligned, specifically in terms of the use of comprehensive indirect error-coded WCF and the use of evaluation grids. Implications and future research avenues are discussed.

Guided by the Second Language Motivational Self System (L2MSS) framework, this study examined to what extent the L2MSS components of ideal self, ought-to self, and learning experience described the motivation of learners who chose to enroll in college elective courses of modern languages other than English (LOTEs) in the monolingual social setting of Taiwan. Questionnaire surveys were conducted at the end of two consecutive semesters and learners were interviewed. Triangulation of survey and interview data suggested that a positive learning experience was the strongest variable in motivating effort. Although some classroom factors were known, others worth further exploration in instructional settings were pointed out. The ought-to L2 self was found to be an insignificant predictor with questionable validity. Instead, academic responsibility and instrumentality were found to be more relevant factors. Results on ideal self were less straightforward, suggesting that the ideal self for LOTEs may be qualitatively different from the English ideal self. Comparisons of data sets across time and learner groups indicated motivation did not change over time. By considering major L2MSS components and related constructs together, this study uncovered their relative adequacy in explaining LOTE motivation and suggested possible new perspectives for studying LOTE motivation in instructional settings.

The language teaching landscape in Ireland has changed considerably over the last 30 years as a result of substantial and sustained inward migration into the country during this period. These social and demographic developments have added to the country's already bilingual context and created a much more varied multilingual landscape than had existed in previous decades. They have also impacted various aspects of language teaching policy, provision and methods for both indigenous and foreign languages. This article reviews research on language teaching and learning in Ireland published during the period 2012-2021. We discuss relevant work disseminated primarily in peer-reviewed journals (national and international), as well as in books, commissioned reports and chapters in edited volumes. The research and policy documents presented concern the teaching and learning of Irish, English and Modern Foreign Languages as second and/or additional languages across all levels of education. They address language teacher training contexts as well. We believe that this review of research demonstrates the extent to which recent inquiries in these domains have advanced knowledge and practice in the Irish context, and have also informed the international research community more generally.

The initial response to COVID-19 exposed widespread racism and Sinophobia across the world, which contributed to a rethinking of equality and diversity in Higher Education (HE) and beyond. Within Modern Languages, much attention has been placed on decolonising the curriculum. The death of George Floyd in 2020 further contributed to an increased awareness of the need to rethink racism and challenge current practice within the curriculum. This paper re-examines the findings of a doctoral study exploring students' development of Intercultural Competence (IC) and criticality in Modern Languages with the aim of revisiting ways in which students' intercultural development can be defined and fostered in Higher Education.

This paper reports findings from a longitudinal qualitative study that explored the ethnographic learning processes of 10 modern languages students who spent one full academic year abroad, having first completed successfully an "Introduction to Ethnography" course in the UK. It begins from the argument that although significant attempts have been made to integrate ethnography into modern languages undergraduate degree programmes, relatively little is known about its actual impact on modern languages sojourners. Drawing on active interviews and reflective diaries that were designed to investigate this impact from shortly before participants embarked on their year abroad to the moment they returned, the thematic and critical discourse analysis of the data focuses attention on two key themes: students' perceptions of their host cultures and the impact of ethnography on students' perceptions. Findings from the first theme reveal that participants' perceptions were derogatory and that they used a number of mitigating discourse strategies to avoid creating a negative impression on the researchers. Findings from the second theme suggest that ethnography made little impact on most participants, given that their derogatory perceptions of the "foreign other" remained almost intact throughout the year abroad. The paper discusses possible reasons for these findings, arguing that the contextual nature of ethnographic inquiry does not always enable modern languages sojourners to dismantle the cultural generalisations they may make.

In two-way interactive listening, listeners are expected to use interactional skills or strategies to understand meaning, recognize interlocutors' intentions, make responses, and establish common ground. However, strategy use can be affected by learner differences and affective factors. The present study investigated the effects of group difference (students majoring in five modern foreign languages) and an affective factor (self-perceived communication confidence) on Chinese native speakers' strategies for interactive listening. A questionnaire survey was conducted to explore the listening strategies used by 445 college students, and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 students to uncover listening difficulties in their language majors. A two-way between-groups MANOVA test revealed statistically significant main effects for language majors and communication confidence on overall and on certain types of strategy for interactive listening. Spanish language majors were found to use strategies more frequently than English, French, German, or Japanese major students. Students in all five language majors with higher self-perceived communication confidence used inference-making, phonological and nonverbal strategies more frequently than low-confidence students. Certain listening difficulties were found to be language specific. In general, vocabulary size as well as lexical segmentation were reported as main listening difficulties, followed by morphological and syntactic variation, and fast speech rate.

This article focuses on the implementation of a flipped classroom approach in two different levels of Spanish foreign language university courses for beginner and intermediate learners. The flipped classroom approach delivers course content that prioritizes both digital technology and active learning. Despite its potential advantages in the language classroom, empirical research in this area remains limited. The present study addresses the gap by investigating the effects of the flipped classroom approach on Spanish as a foreign language by comparing student attitudes in flipped and traditional classrooms in beginner and intermediate Spanish courses at a university level. Specifically, this research explores the use of the flipped classroom approach in a second language classroom as a way to present grammar content prior to the in-class lesson and compares the results to those of a traditional, lecture-like delivery of the same grammar content. Drawing on data elicited from students and instructors in these course levels, this study investigates student and instructor perceptions, as well as student autonomy, engagement, and achievement through a qualitative lens. By foreign language (FL), the authors mean modern language (ML), as strongly suggested by the European Commission.

This paper explores the role of collaborative teacher agency in facilitating translingual adjustments in a linguistically diverse primary school in Sweden. We focus on three multicompetent language teachers, who taught minoritized languages in the marginalized Mother Tongue (MT) subject, Modern Languages, and offered Multilingual Study Mentoring. Drawing from ethnographic fieldwork, including teacher interviews and fieldnotes from everyday MT practices and preparations for an annual musical performance, we investigated how the teachers adjusted to the students' multilingual repertoires through "relational agency" and "distributed expertise" (Edwards, A. 2011. Building common knowledge at the boundaries between professional practices: Relational agency and relational expertise in systems of distributed expertise. "International Journal of Educational Research" 50(1). 33-39). These adjustments affected the offered language provisions beyond what was required, based on students' linguistic competencies and parental involvement. Didactic adjustments also afforded migrant students literary experiences that starkly contrasted with the limited literacy content in beginner courses in Swedish. These "responsive professional actions" (Edwards, A. 2011. Building common knowledge at the boundaries between professional practices: Relational agency and relational expertise in systems of distributed expertise. "International Journal of Educational Research" 50(1). 33-39, p. 39) thus impacted on the students' opportunities for multilingual development, expanded language registers, including verbal art, and linguistic inclusion. Through these actions, language was reformulated as asset, and we find that "an ethics of care" (Watkins, M. 2011. Teachers' tears and the affective geography of the classroom. "Emotion, Space and Society" 4(3). 137-143) was closely intertwined with this relational agency. The findings contribute new knowledge on the role of collaborative teacher agency in diverse settings also of relevance to other national contexts.

This paper presents the findings of a research project on UK school students' attitudes to the use of Free Online Machine Translation for L2 production and more specifically in preparing for assessment. Data were collected from a publicly available online forum to analyse students' spontaneous discussion of the use of Free Online Machine Translation, predominantly Google Translate. The majority of relevant comments were posted by secondary school students in the UK, regarding the use of Google Translate for GCSE examinations. The findings reveal that use of Google Translate for assignments was accepted practice among secondary school students in the UK over the last decade. However, they show mixed attitudes to this usage, and the nature of the discussion changed over the decade as a result of the evolution of Google Translate and changes to UK examination requirements. This study is original in its use of netnography, the study of online communities, to analyse students' comments to each other about their use of Google Translate in preparing for modern foreign languages (MFL) coursework. These findings, therefore, serve to inform the debate on how schools and universities should respond to student Google Translate usage for language learning and assignments.

Languages have played a significant role in the shaping of theological and religious leaders. Historically consisting mostly of biblical and ancient languages, contemporary theological education includes the study of modern foreign languages for research and ministerial purposes. If written and spoken communication in a variety of languages is a foundational aspect of the theological classroom, why is it, then, that seminaries and theological institutions give little attention to theories and pedagogies of second language acquisition? This article seeks to expose theological educators to the most significant theory in the study of language pedagogy and provides a case study of a course taught to students in a seminary setting. In addition to scholarly studies, it relies on the influence of autodidactic polyglots, an indispensable source of experience and wisdom in the world of language acquisition. By improving practices around language instruction, the future of theological education can better engage with a multi-cultural and global society.

In this paper, we use the lens of embodied language cognition and intersemiosis to argue for the importance of developing creative approaches to language work in classroom settings and we cite as an example some activities from a workshop that was developed for modern foreign languages (MFL) trainee teachers in London (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M9hR-LQ0xOE). The workshop resulted from a collaboration between an applied linguist (Coffey) and an artist-educator (Patel), and combined their shared understanding of language use as an emotional, embodied enterprise etched into our autobiographical identities. We suggest that working with intersemiotic approaches to language has the potential to reinvigorate language pedagogy by challenging dominant metaphors both of 'language' and of 'learning'. The paper intends both to make a practical contribution in its reporting of activities, which we hope will inspire teachers and teacher educators to develop intersemiotic approaches for their own settings, and also to contribute to the broader scholarship that calls for 'reframing teacher cognition' (e.g. Coffey [2015]. Reframing teachers' language knowledge through metaphor analysis of language portraits. "The Modern Language Journal" 99, no. 3: 500-14), even 'liberating language education' (e.g. Lytra et al. [2022]. "Liberating Language Education." Bristol: Multilingual Matters), to imagine new orientations for how we engage with languages in our lives and our classrooms.

Previous research has considered fluctuations in students' foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) over months or years (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014, 2016). However, there has been no investigation of the effect of the teacher on these emotions at a single point in time. In this study, we investigate the question whether FL learners experience similar levels of FLE and FLCA in the same language if they have two different teachers. Participants were 40 London-based secondary school students studying modern languages with one Main Teacher and one Second Teacher. Statistical analysis revealed that while FLCA was constant with both teachers, FLE was significantly higher with the Main Teacher. Predictors of FLE such as attitudes towards the teacher, the teacher's frequency of use of the target language in class and unpredictability were also significantly more positive for the Main Teacher. Item-level analysis revealed that the teacher creating a positive emotional atmosphere in class contributed to the higher FLE score. Items that reflected more stable personal and group characteristics varied less between the two teachers. The findings suggest that FLE is more teacher-dependent than FLCA, which is more stable across teachers.

The trend towards the development of intercultural communicative competences of students, the use of interactive teaching methods, the changing role of a teacher to a consultant in the teaching process necessitates highlighting the level of perception, knowledge and views of teachers on the intercultural approach in teaching. Based on the study of the experience of EU countries in the implementation of intercultural approach in the teaching of foreign languages and an enquiry of 32 teachers, the level of teachers' perception of the intercultural approach was assessed. We have established the next points: 1) changes in the social and economic context require new approaches to the organization and provision of foreign language education; 2) shifting away from linguistic purity and correctness and the priority of a democratic society, openness to different cultures. This indicates that the social and educational environments are multilingual. The study proves a positive perception in increasing the level of knowledge concerning teachers' intercultural communicative competences. Teachers confirm the importance of implementing an intercultural approach in teaching foreign languages. The scientific paper proves the convergence of developing countries, to advanced countries in the implementation of an intercultural approach to teaching foreign languagesat the local level. Nevertheless, the perception of intercultural competences as the best approach to teaching is at a mean level in Ukraine compared to EU countries.

This paper is about identifying a nuance of social meaning which, I demonstrate, was conveyed in the Early and Late Modern period by the suffix "-oon." The history of non-native suffix "-oon" is presented by means of assembling non-native suffix "-oon" vocabulary in date order and sorting according to etymology. It turns out that standard nonnative "-oon" words (which are few) tended to stabilise early and be of y. A period of enregisterment, c. 1750-1850, is identified by means of scrutiny of non-native "-oon" usage in sixty novels, leading to the conclusion that four or more non-native "-oons" in a literary work signalled vulgarity. A link is made between the one-quarter non-European "-oons" brought to English via colonial trade, and the use of such "-oons" by non-noble merchants, traders and their customers splashing out on luxury foreign commodities. Thus, it is found that a suffix borrowed from Romance languages in the Middle English period received fresh input during the Early Modern period via non-European borrowings, resulting in sociolinguistic enregisterment in the Late Modern period.

The standardisation process of English spelling largely came to its conclusion during the Early Modern period. While the progress of standardisation has been studied in both printed and manuscript texts, few studies have looked at these processes side by side, especially focusing on the same genre of writing and by using corpora that are sufficiently large for quantitative comparison. Using two Early Modern medical corpora, one based on manuscripts and the other on printed sources, this paper compares the trajectories of spelling standardisation in the two textual domains and shows that while spelling standardisation progressed in an almost linear fashion in printed texts, the manuscripts reveal a much more varied and shallow cline toward standardisation.

In a neoliberal era of education, there has been a shift of policy focus to performativity and evidence-based practice, coupled with neoconservative ideology of a more traditional knowledge-led curriculum. The resultant, extant education policy context has received criticism due to its teach to test culture, the concomitant narrowing of curriculum and the highly prescribed, scrutinised and 'authorised' pedagogic practices prevalent in schools. The paper draws on empirical qualitative data from three modern foreign languages (MFL) secondary school teachers in high poverty contexts in the North West of England. The study examines how these teachers describe their pedagogical practice within the confines of the current policy landscape and how they respond to curriculum and assessment requirements. The paper concludes that, despite the limiting effects of the prescriptive approaches in the current educational system, there are opportunities for teachers to promote unauthorised pedagogies in their classrooms that respond to their specific contexts. However, it acknowledges a shift in teachers' professional identity and questions the current discourses associated with teachers' professional knowledge. In response to this, I call for better recognition of the politicised and antidemocratic nature of current education policy and for us to equip teachers to become public intellectuals with the professional confidence to act for social change by reclaiming pedagogic discourses and practices that benefit pupils living in poverty.

According to Self-Determination Theory, intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation are maintained to the extent that learners feel that engagement in an activity is a personally meaningful choice, that the task can be performed competently, and that they share a social bond with significant others in the learning context. These perceptions are enhanced when significant others act or communicate in a way that encourages learner autonomy, provides informative feedback on how to improve task competency, and establishes a sense of connection with the learner. The present study used a focused essay technique to examine how the learning context impacts learners' motivation and the kinds of support (or lack thereof) received from different people. Heritage (n=34), modern (n=34), and English-as-a-second-language (ESL; n=36) learners described their reasons for language learning, and reported how teachers, family members, peers, and members of the language community encouraged or discouraged their engagement in language learning. The results indicated that heritage students are more included to learn the language because it is integral to their sense of self than the two other groups, whereas ESL students are generally more regulated by external contingencies. Although there were some commonalities, different people supported learners' motivation in different ways depending upon the learning context. The results point to the importance of the language learning context for understanding students' motivation and how others can support them.