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The Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni is a small migratory falcon, foraging in areas covered by relatively low vegetation. In the Thessalian Plain, Central Greece, it feeds mainly on large Orthoptera and Coleoptera, and is characterized by an opportunistic feeding strategy. The purpose of this study was to investigate the composition of the Lesser Kestrel diet in the Thessalian plain. Systematic visits to two large representative colonies of the Lesser Kestrel in the study area were performed, in order to collect pellets during 2014 and 2015 breeding and post breeding periods of the species. Pellet analysis indicated that Orthoptera and Coleoptera were the main prey categories, which seem to have been the most specialized and dominant feeding choices of the species in the study area, while all other prey categories were rare and not specialized. Lesser Kestrel relied its diet on Orthoptera (Tettigoniidae and Acrididae), mainly during the breeding and post breeding phases, while the feeding strategy of the species during these two phases can be characterized as opportunistic. On the contrary, prior to the breeding phase, main prey category of the species in the study area was Coleoptera (Carabidae and Scarabaeidae). Moreover, a narrower niche breadth of the species based on Levins' index, was recorded during the breeding phase for both years of the study, indicating that the species restricted the variety of the diet during this phase. Conclusively, the species during its whole breeding season made different prey choices, depending on the breeding phase and its specialized needs during each phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The green school in northern Israel has embraced an eco-humanist approach with the aim of mitigating the animosity displayed by fifth-grade students towards invasive species. This antipathy arose due to the negative impact of these invasive species on a local species that the students were monitoring as a component of their environmental education curriculum. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine to what extent, if at all, there is a difference in the ethical attitude of the 188 fifth-grade students (10–11 years old) towards the conflict between the Lesser Kestrel (local species) and the Myna (invader species) and the solution to this conflict following the change to an eco-humanist teaching approach. The study, based on content analysis methodology of written self-reflection, and thematic analysis indicated that the fifth-graders' knowledge was not adversely affected, but the solutions they proposed for resolving the conflict between the Myna and the Lesser Kestrel were more holistic, ethical, and moral after adopting the eco-humanist approach. Eco-humanism encourages an ethical attitude and environmental responsibility toward nature's fate, including invasive species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The overhead electrical power lines, which are part of the electricity distribution network, could be considerable threat to different bird species. The main incidents are related to electrocution and bird`s collision with power lines. The biggest danger comes from electrocution – in these cases birds die as a result of contact with the power line. The electrical current generates electric arc through the bird and the power line and leading to the birds’ instant death. The Green Balkans, as а breeder in SPA Sakar BG 002021 Bulgaria, and under the projects “Lesser Kestrel Recovery” LIFE11 NAT/BG/360 and “LIFE for Lesser Kestrel” LIFE19 NAT/BG/001017 succeeded to recover Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni, Fleischer 1818) and among the aims of the project was to take measures to mitigate the threat of electrocution. Among the operational over ground power grid lines in Bulgaria, according to the electrical voltage, the most dangerous and life threatening to birds is the mid voltage power supply grid (20 kV) that is also the main cause for death from electrocution. The Green Balkans` team conducted field research of the dangerous types of pylons, on-site isolation of electricity pylons has been identified within a range of 4.5 km of the Lesser Kestrel colony. According to the way of safeguarding the elements of the electrical grid several different devices were used: “Rigid bird protective cover”, perch guards and bird discouragers. Safeguarding by installation of perches has also been done. The isolation of dangerous pylons in the electrical network ensured safe conditions not only for the Lesser Kestrels, but also for other birds that use the power line elements as landing sites, rest spots, or even for nesting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni, Fleischer, 1818) was a widespread species in Bulgaria, there are no detailed surveys on its biology and ecology like the ones implemented in countries still harbouring abundant populations, such as Spain, Italy, Greece, etc. After 2014 when “Green Balkans”, as a breeder, launched the reinforcement of the species and its recovery in Bulgaria now it is possible to study the species using modern technologies and methods like radio and satellite transmitters. The known roost sites (n=12), the subject of our study, are located from 55 to 745 m above the sea level, as the main part of them is situated about 100 - 200 m above the sea level. The most numerous roost site, which is located in the North-eastern Greece, is comprised of about 80 individuals but in the other roost sites the number of the Lesser Kestrel reach 20-40 individuals. During the period 2014 - 2021 the Lesser Kestrels in the largest known colony of the species in Bulgaria, which is located in SPA Sakar, have used different high voltage pylons from the same power lines, alternating pylons depending on the type of agricultural crops in the area. It has been found that the birds express preferences for cereal crops around high voltage pylons, which they use as roost sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sex ratio of nestlings is a crucial population determinant in rare and/or endangered species. We investigated the role of female body condition and female-related traits in Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) nestling sex allocation at a nest-box colony in central Greece. We used the total clutch volume and size, female weight, hatching dates, body length, wing length, tail length, tarsometatarsus, and bill length as explanatory variables of the number of male nestlings (the response variable) using CART model analysis. This analysis showed that the reproduction output was biased towards male nestlings when female parents were shorter in body length and clutch size and volume were smaller. The skewed sex ratio favoring females, 1:2.35, suggests that when female parents are in good condition, they invest most in good-quality female nestlings, providing a reproductive advantage and increased long-term fitness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of bird mortality by collision on windfarms has often been evaluated at the individual level, but rarely at the population level. The Lesser kestrel Falco naumanni is an endangered short‐lived migratory raptor, susceptible to collision with wind turbines. We evaluated the impacts of windfarm turbine collisions on the demography of the largest lesser kestrel population in France. Using data from local monitoring of reproduction and windfarm mortality surveys, combined with capture‐recapture ringing data at a nearby population, we quantified vital parameters of fecundity and survival in order to parameterize a matrix population model to study the viability of this population. The breeding success was high and varied in synchrony with survival probabilities. Between 2013 and 2020, 43 carcasses were found below wind turbines, and when accounting for carcass detection and persistence rates, the true mortality should approach 154 individuals in that period, i.e. 3% of the studied population was affected by collisions each year. The matrix model showed that the population growth observed was only possible if there was a constant recruitment of 26 immigrant individuals each year into the population. Without the excess mortality by the windfarm, we predict that this population would have 22% more breeding pairs than what was observed in 2020. Simulations over 30 years showed that, under the current immigration rate, the population should decline if the excess mortality exceeds 11%. If immigration ceases, the population would decline above 5% excess mortality per year. It is urgent to monitor and reduce the excess mortality by windfarm collisions that threatens this lesser kestrel population. More generally, we advocate the use of population matrix demographic models in impact assessment studies to avoid placing new windfarms close to rare species that could not sustain additional mortality by collisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emotion is a central aspect for protecting the environment in environmental and sustainability education (ESE). As such, positive emotions toward nature can increase motivation to learn and take environmental action. This qualitative case study explored the complex interrelationship among place-based education, emotions and values related to ESE, academic social and emotional learning, and explored the situated notion of emotions in the context of environmental citizenship. The emotions of 59 fifth-grade students, who were engaged in a program to protect the Lesser Kestrel, were explored. The findings suggest that the outcomes of the Lesser Kestrel program were complex and mostly positive in activating students' emotions. The results indicate that ESE programs should focus on situated emotions, due to their important role in promoting powerful learning experiences and environmental citizenship, which may mitigate the environmental crisis, along with moral issues that affect the well-being of the individual, and social and natural environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The green school in northern Israel has embraced an eco-humanist approach with the aim of mitigating the animosity displayed by fifth-grade students towards invasive species. This antipathy arose due to the negative impact of these invasive species on a local species that the students were monitoring as a component of their environmental education curriculum. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine to what extent, if at all, there is a difference in the ethical attitude of the 188 fifth-grade students (10–11 years old) towards the conflict between the Lesser Kestrel (local species) and the Myna (invader species) and the solution to this conflict following the change to an eco-humanist teaching approach. The study, based on content analysis methodology of written self-reflection, and thematic analysis indicated that the fifth-graders’ knowledge was not adversely affected, but the solutions they proposed for resolving the conflict between the Myna and the Lesser Kestrel were more holistic, ethical, and moral after adopting the eco-humanist approach. Eco-humanism encourages an ethical attitude and environmental responsibility toward nature’s fate, including invasive species.

Foraging specialization, whereby animals exploit only a minor fraction of the population's foraging home range or trophic niche, may arise as a response to increasing levels of intraspecific competition. This phenomenon may be particularly frequent in colonial species, when individuals breed in large aggregations and are constrained to exploit shared foraging areas surrounding the colony site where competition for access to food resources may be high. Foraging specialization may be driven by individual foraging site fidelity, occurring whenever individuals consistently target specific foraging sites, which may differ from those used by other colony members. We assessed the extent of foraging specialization in a colonial breeding raptor, the lesser kestrel, Falco naumanni , by estimating the repeatability of foraging movement patterns of 45 GPS-tracked individuals during both incubation and nestling rearing. We found that the consistency of individual movement patterns was generally higher during nestling rearing than during incubation. Nestling-rearing individuals, but not incubating ones, travelled along relatively consistent routes when targeting foraging grounds and tended to target the same foraging areas throughout the tracking period. In colonial birds, and likely in altricial species more generally, an increased individual foraging site fidelity during nestling rearing versus incubation may result from increased energy demands due to frequent nestling provisioning in addition to self-provisioning. By consistently exploiting previously visited foraging sites that are likely to be rewarding, nestling-rearing birds might indeed increase their foraging efficiency, shortening food-searching time and maximizing their foraging effort. In addition, the use of distinct foraging areas may reduce intraspecific competition for food, thus buffering an important cost of coloniality. • Nestling-rearing lesser kestrels showed high individual foraging site fidelity. • Incubating birds were less consistent in foraging movement and commuting routes. • Site fidelity likely resulted in optimized foraging effort and food-searching time. • Site fidelity may increase foraging efficiency in a high energy-demanding phase. • Using distinct foraging sites could also reduce intraspecific competition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Microbial communities are found on any part of animal bodies exposed to the environment, and are particularly prominent in the gut, where they play such a major role in the host metabolism and physiology to be considered a "second genome". These communities, collectively known as "microbiome", are well studied in humans and model species, while studies on wild animals have lagged behind. This is unfortunate, as different studies suggested the central role of the gut microbiome in shaping the evolutionary trajectories of species and their population dynamics. Among bird species, only few descriptions of raptor gut microbiomes are available, and mainly carried out on captive individuals. Objectives. In this study, we aimed at improving the knowledge of raptor microbiomes by providing the first description of the gut microbiome of the lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni), a cavity-nesting raptor. Results. The gut microbiome of the lesser kestrel was dominated by Actinobacteria (83.9%), Proteobacteria (8.6%) and Firmicutes (4.3%). We detected no differences in microbiome composition between males and females. Furthermore, the general composition of the microbiome appears similar to that of phylogenetically distant cavity-nesting species. Conclusions. Our results broaden the knowledge of raptor gut microbial communities and let us hypothesize that the distinct nest environment in terms of microclimate and presence of organic material from previous breeding attempts, to which cavity- nesting species that reuse the nest are exposed, might be an important driver shaping microbiomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Microbial communities are found on any part of animal bodies exposed to the environment, and are particularly prominent in the gut, where they play such a major role in the host metabolism and physiology to be considered a “second genome”. These communities, collectively known as “microbiome”, are well studied in humans and model species, while studies on wild animals have lagged behind. This is unfortunate, as different studies suggested the central role of the gut microbiome in shaping the evolutionary trajectories of species and their population dynamics. Among bird species, only few descriptions of raptor gut microbiomes are available, and mainly carried out on captive individuals. Objectives In this study, we aimed at improving the knowledge of raptor microbiomes by providing the first description of the gut microbiome of the lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni), a cavity-nesting raptor. Results The gut microbiome of the lesser kestrel was dominated by Actinobacteria (83.9%), Proteobacteria (8.6%) and Firmicutes (4.3%). We detected no differences in microbiome composition between males and females. Furthermore, the general composition of the microbiome appears similar to that of phylogenetically distant cavity-nesting species. Conclusions Our results broaden the knowledge of raptor gut microbial communities and let us hypothesize that the distinct nest environment in terms of microclimate and presence of organic material from previous breeding attempts, to which cavity-nesting species that reuse the nest are exposed, might be an important driver shaping microbiomes.

The conservation of threatened species is prevalently oriented towards two management strategies, i.e., habitat-level and species-level approaches. The former is focused on improving the conditions of the habitat of a certain species, whereas the latter is aimed at directly strengthening the species of interest. In this work, we adopted a different solution based on a community-level approach. Firstly, we identified the species (predators, competitors, prey) that interact with the species of interest (the lesser kestrel, Falco naumanni) in Southern Italy and mapped all of the ecological interactions among these species. Secondly, we built a simulation framework of the entire ecological network of the lesser kestrel. Thirdly, we simulated different management strategies that could increase the lesser kestrel population stock by targeting the species that interact with it. We found that the lesser kestrel in Southern Italy can be effectively protected by targeting the species interacting with the lesser kestrel, and that natural changes in the abundance of the interacting species could be used to pro-actively predict the dynamics of the lesser kestrel population. Our study demonstrates that a community-level approach to species conservation is highly appropriate on a local scale. Our methodological framework, based on qualitative modeling and what-if scenarios, can be applied in the absence of quantitative estimations of population stocks and interaction strengths. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When selecting a breeding site, individuals can use social information to reduce the uncertainty regarding habitat quality. Individuals of several bird species tend to reuse nests previously occupied by conspecific or heterospecific competitors but the proximate mechanisms underlying this behaviour remain unclear. Reoccupying nests previously used by competitors could result from individuals copying competitors' choices (the 'social information' hypothesis). Alternatively, it could allow individuals to fulfil their need for a soft nest substrate (e.g. by improving thermal insulation or reducing egg breakage risks) at low costs, regardless of previous occupancy (the 'comfort' hypothesis). Here, we aimed to determine which of these nonmutually exclusive mechanisms triggered the preference for old conspecific nest material in a secondary cavity-nesting raptor that does not add lining material to its nests, the lesser kestrel, Falco naumanni. Using an experimental design forcing settling lesser kestrels to choose between two adjacent nestboxes containing different substrates, we detected a strong preference for soft substrates (peat moss or old conspecific or European roller, Coracias garrulus , nest material) over coarse mineral substrate, especially when the soft substrate also provided social information about previous nest use by a competitor. Despite the apparent absence of preference when directly comparing settlement patterns in soft substrates with and without social information, early settling individuals favoured the substrate with social information, while late settling ones favoured the substrate without social information. This could reflect intraspecific competition avoidance by late arriving individuals that may be competitively inferior to early arriving ones. This hypothesis is supported by a later laying date of young breeders in our population. Our findings suggest that both comfort seeking and social information use explain the preference for previously used nest cavities, and that nest site choices may depend on individual competitive abilities and experience. • The proximate mechanisms underlying the reuse of old nest material are diverse. • Lesser kestrels preferred soft nest substrates, with or without social cues. • Between two soft substrates, early breeders favoured the one providing social cues. • Late breeders, mostly young, preferred soft substrates with no social cues. • Lesser kestrels may adjust social information use according to individual traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conservation of threatened species is prevalently oriented towards two management strategies, i.e., habitat-level and species-level approaches. The former is focused on improving the conditions of the habitat of a certain species, whereas the latter is aimed at directly strengthening the species of interest. In this work, we adopted a different solution based on a community-level approach. Firstly, we identified the species (predators, competitors, prey) that interact with the species of interest (the lesser kestrel, Falco naumanni) in Southern Italy and mapped all of the ecological interactions among these species. Secondly, we built a simulation framework of the entire ecological network of the lesser kestrel. Thirdly, we simulated different management strategies that could increase the lesser kestrel population stock by targeting the species that interact with it. We found that the lesser kestrel in Southern Italy can be effectively protected by targeting the species interacting with the lesser kestrel, and that natural changes in the abundance of the interacting species could be used to pro-actively predict the dynamics of the lesser kestrel population. Our study demonstrates that a community-level approach to species conservation is highly appropriate on a local scale. Our methodological framework, based on qualitative modeling and what-if scenarios, can be applied in the absence of quantitative estimations of population stocks and interaction strengths.

Female promiscuity can function to acquire both direct and indirect benefits from their social mate and extra‐pair males. In many raptor species, intense mate‐feeding significantly contributes to female energy requirements before and during egg laying. Moreover, females may use mate‐feeding effort to assess male quality. In this study of the lesser kestrel Falco naumanni, we aimed at experimentally manipulating the female's perception of mate quality by providing females with extra food during egg laying, and evaluated the occurrence of extra‐pair paternity in food‐supplemented and control broods by parentage analyses. No extra‐pair offspring (EPO) was found among 19 food‐supplemented broods, whereas EPO occurred in five out of 17 control broods. No significant differences in morphological traits, body condition and reproductive success were found between faithful and unfaithful females. However, clutches containing EPO were laid later in the breeding season. Moreover, un‐cuckolded males had longer tarsi than cuckolded ones, indicating larger body size. Hence, extra food provisioning and early breeding reduced the occurrence of EPO in lesser kestrels. In addition, we confirmed the occurrence of intraspecific brood parasitism, as five nestlings were not the offspring of the brooding female. The results of our food‐provisioning experiment support the idea that mate‐feeding ability is a reliable indicator of male quality, and are in accordance with the hypothesis that male mate‐feeding behaviour is a sexually selected trait. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We studied the ectoparasitics of breeding Lesser Kestrels (Falco naumanni) in Mongolia. We captured 20 adult, one fledgling, and 11 nestling Lesser Kestrels and examined them for ectoparasites in Ikh Nart Nature Reserve, a semi-desert region of Mongolia. We examined 11 nestlings multiple times throughout the nestling period to count carnid flies (Carnus hemapterus). All nestlings age 1–4 d old were infested (mean of 6.0 flies per nestling). Older nestlings had fewer carnid flies over the course of the nesting season. We also collected 120 louse flies (Ornithophila gestroi) from 20 adults and one fledgling, an infestation rate of 85.7%. The mean number of louse flies per host was 6.3 (range = 1–19) per infested bird. These represent the first Mongolian records of O. gestroi and C. hemapterus from adult and nestling Lesser Kestrels. These two fly species have been previously recorded from several diverse avian species in many regions of Eurasia and North America. The paucity of investigations of raptor ectoparasites in Mongolia suggests that this is an important area for future research and that additional reports of other ectoparasites are likely to be forthcoming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni, Fleisher, 1818) is a rare species of falcon nesting colonial. It is mainly breeding in the settlements, occupying under roof spaces, cavities, gaps in the walls of residential, agricultural and industrial buildings, etc. The proximity of its habitats to humans and the good possibility of direct observation are the basis of numerous studies of this species in Europe. One of the methods used is the marking of individuals using standard ornithological (metal) and special coloured PVC rings. The present material presents various combinations between the background of the PVC rings and the colours of the symbols with which they are indicated, applied in Europe. There are 38 different combinations used in 7 different countries across the continent - Bulgaria, Greece, Spain, Italy, Portugal, France and Croatia which cover almost the whole breeding area of the Lesser Kestrel in Europe. Information from European Color-Ring Birding, EURING's partner, which coordinates ringing at European level, has been used to develop the material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examines the effectiveness of integrating 5th grade students as part of citizen science aimed at preserving the Lesser Kestrel. The study examined the quality of the database collected by the students. During the project, students used mobile phones and the Survey123 app for locating nesting boxes for the Lesser Kestrel. The application provides a simple data collection solutions using online forms, enabling the students to create, share, and analyze surveys with a geographic location component. The study used a mixed-method approach to examine the efficiency of data collection by 5th and to examine student perceptions of the survey’s outcome. The results indicate that the database was not effective due to lack of sufficient reliable quality data. However, even the partial data collected raise concerns for the future of the Lesser Kestrel population in the area. In addition, the study also revealed that the survey (a) contributed to positive learning experiences, (b) increased motivation and (c) strengthened the social relationship among the students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Providing nest-sites is an effective tool but may attract non-target species. • We wanted to prevent Jackdaws from dominating a Lesser Kestrel nest-box colony. • We blocked and opened the entrances to the nest-boxes in the colony. • This approach resulted in higher occupancy and breeding success in Lesser Kestrels. • We suggest that this is an effective, non-lethal tool for mitigating competition. Anthropogenic changes in the natural environment have led to the need to find alternative resources to ensure the persistence of biodiversity. In birds, nest sites can be a limiting resource in stenotopic populations. A method of active protection is the building of nest boxes. However, attractive nest sites attract target species and their competitors. From the species conservation point of view, our target species was the Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni), whose populations have recovered owing to the establishment of nest box colonies across Europe. However, they have been out-competed by Jackdaws (Corvus monedula) in recent years. Because corvids are intelligent and aggressive, we had to artificially control the competition from Jackdaws to allow Lesser Kestrels to nest. We aimed to discourage Jackdaws from taking over the studied colony and to ensure the continued breeding of Lesser Kestrels by manipulating access to the nest boxes. Data were collected during three breeding seasons in a Lesser Kestrel nest box colony using two manipulations in which we prevented Jackdaw occupation by closing some of the nest boxes and then gradually opening them. We found a significantly lower probability of Lesser Kestrels nesting and lower breeding performance in the control year than in the years in which access to the boxes was manipulated. The field experiment shows the high efficiency of manipulating the accessibility of nest boxes by closing and opening them at the right time in the context of their occupation by the target species and thus influencing their breeding performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[In Sicily, the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni is a summer species, partly wintering; irregularly distributed in steppe habitats. In an area of 5,000 km² of central southern Sicily have been recorded, between 1977 and 2016, 127 breeding pairs, 123 of them concentrated in 5 areas, and 4 isolated pairs in suitable sites. In area A the density was of 1 pair in 4 km²; in area B of 1 pair in 21 km²; in area C of 1 pair in 10 km²; in area D of 1 pair in 12 km²; in area E of 1 pair in 3,3 km². The density was higher between 50 and 650 m of altitude.] [Article in Italian]

We studied Lesser Kestrels' (Falco naumanni) conditional nest-site fidelity, i.e., fidelity that depends on the outcome of the previous nesting attempt in that site. In particular, we were interested in examining whether individual kestrels practice a Win–Stay/Lose–Shift (WSLS) strategy towards their nest-sites; that is, does the tendency to use the same nest-site increase following a successful nesting season, but decrease following a failure. For that purpose, we documented the use of nest-sites by Lesser Kestrels and the breeding success in these sites during 1998–2003 in the city of Jerusalem (Israel). We found that while Lesser Kestrels do not practice WSLS strategy towards their nest-site, the males (but not the females) do so towards their sub-colony – they tend to stay in the same sub-colony if their nesting was successful, whereas they tend to migrate to a different sub-colony after failure. A possible explanation to this sexual difference in WSLS behavior can arise from the fact that changing a sub-colony entails a change of hunting area. The male, being the main food provider in the Lesser Kestrel, may be more sensitive to this opportunity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of food supplement to Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) nests during the nestling period (from hatching to fledging) was studied in two nesting colonies in Israel – Alona and Jerusalem. Our hypothesis, based on diminishing returns considerations, was that food supplement will have a greater effect on fledgling success in the food-limited, urban colony of Jerusalem, than in the rural colony of Alona. Indeed, food supplement had a significantly positive effect on breeding success in both colonies. However, and contrary to our prediction, the decrease in chick mortality between supplemented and control nests in Jerusalem was not larger than in Alona (actually it was numerically smaller, albeit not significantly so). This implies either that additional factors, possibly urbanization associated, other than food limitation, might be responsible for the difference in nesting success of Lesser Kestrels between Alona and Jerusalem, and/or that the amount or the nutritional quality of the additional food provided to supplemented nests (three mice per chick per week), was not enough. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For decades, it is considered that the Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni, Fleischer, 1818), which is one of the smallest species of falcons found in Europe, has disappeared from Bulgaria as a nesting species. In this connection, “Green Balkans” has launched a program to strengthen the population and restore as nesting the species in our country. The method of adaptation and release in nature of translocated chicks from Spain was applied. According to the IUCN requirements, the reintroduction of species requires the monitoring of the process and its results. For that purpose, each of the individuals released in nature is marked with a standard (metal) ornithological ring on one leg and specialized colour PVC ring on the other leg. Considering the international schemes for the marking of Lesser Kestrel indicated by European colour-ring Birding, the team sets a unique colour scheme for Bulgaria – orange PVC ring with black inscriptions, a combination of letters and / or numbers. In 2013 the first release of chicks was made in the Special Protected Area Sakar (BG0002021) which is a part of European network NATURA 2000. For the period 2013-2018, a total of 671 birds were tagged under this scheme. A scheme for marking with coloured rings of Lesser Kestrel was applied for the first time in the country in the course of surveys of this rare and protected species. Marking with coloured rings allows individual tracking of each bird from a close distance without their capture being necessary. Due to the fact, the behaviour of birds, the process of adaptation and stay in the colony area, their migration and the formation of pairs, occupation of artificial nests and other ecological features are tracked. All this, is of key importance in the implementation of direct conservation measures in the process of restoring the species as nesting in the country and the success of the Program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For most of the 20th century the total number of regularly breeding land bird species on Cyprus remained apparently constant, as predicted by the theory of island biogeography. However, since cl992 there has been an unexpected increase in that total, which has coincided with extensive environmental changes but also with increased ornithological activity on the island. Examination of the colonising species, and of those pre-existing residents which have undergone large increases, suggests that the main reasons for these colonisations and increases are anthropogenic, particularly increased habitat diversity and rapid climate change; reduced persecution and disturbance may also be important. These environmental changes may have altered the island's equilibrium total. The species which have colonised and increased are mainly resident, including all those with minimum populations >100 pairs, suggesting that the environmental changes are favouring residents rather than migrant breeders. A small number of extinctions also occurred during and since the 20th century; these also appear to be anthropogenic or mainly so. The rapid climate change on the island is predicted to continue, suggesting there will be further avian population changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Central-eastern Spain is characterised as being a flat and relatively open landscape, greatly used for agricultural purposes and with a high density of wind installations. This landscape also hosts a large population of the lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni), one of the species most threatened by collisions with wind turbines. During a ten-year period, we analysed bird mortality by recording deaths on three wind farms (WF), Cerro del Palo, Cerro Calderón and La Muela I, located in the province of Cuenca (Spain) and containing a total of 99 turbines. The aim of the study was to determine the variables associated with mortalities caused by these types of devices. Subsequently, the information obtained allowed a mitigation measure to be implemented for avoiding and minimising collisions. The procedure involved superficially tilling the soil around the base of turbines with a high collision rate. This measure was monitored for two years before and after implementation in order to compare its effectiveness, and involved making the areas around the turbines less attractive to kestrels by tilling and reducing the amount of vegetation and consequently the abundance of potential prey, mainly Orthoptera. If effective, the lack of prey would decrease the number of dead kestrels, as the birds of prey would need to search for food in other less dangerous areas (approximately 80 m away from the turbines). After monitoring the mitigation measure it was found that the number of collisions decreased by 75–100%. In fact, no collisions were registered during the two year period for all of the wind turbines with tilled surroundings. Based on these results it can be safely stated that this mitigation measure is an easy and inexpensive procedure that significantly and effectively reduces the number of kestrels that collide into wind turbines. Highlights • We analyse lesser kestrel collisions at three wind farms in central-eastern Spain, over a 10-year period. • A mitigation measure was implemented to tillage the soil around the base of turbines with high collision rate. • This measure was monitored for two years in a before-after context in order to compare its effectiveness. • The number of collisions with lesser kestrel decreased by 75 to 100%. • This measure is easy and inexpensive and very effective to reduce significantly collisions with insectivorous raptors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Citizen scientist fifth-graders in Israel helped study and conserve the Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni), which until recently was classified as vulnerable. Starting in 1996, students constructed and installed nest boxes, conducted occupancy surveys of nest boxes on their school property, and rescued nestlings that fell out of nests. Their activities also involved the surrounding agro-community. Despite these activities, the occupancy surveys documented a decline of about 58% in the number of occupied nests documented by the students and the families that had nest boxes installed at their homes between 2002 and 2013; however, decreases may have been less severe at the school site itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Farmland bird species have suffered dramatic declines in recent decades, especially in Mediterranean areas. The intensification of agricultural practices has led to reduced invertebrate prey, which represent the bulk of the diet of many farmland birds. In this study, we investigated the spatial and temporal variation in the diet of the lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) during the breeding season, monitored over a five-year period between 2006 and 2013 in the Gela Plain (Sicily). Our aim was to understand whether, and to what extent, farming practices affected the reproductive outputs of this predominantly insectivore bird in order to find a profitable compromise between conservation of farmland birds and farming practices. During our study, lesser kestrel diet varied among farmland habitats, in terms of ingested biomass, prey items/pellet and diet breadth. This has reflected in the reproductive output because colonies characterised by a higher ingested biomass fledged more chicks than the others. The artichoke and grassland fields were found to provide the most beneficial dietary parameters. Unexpectedly, the intensive and high-profit artichoke farming might turn out to be suitable for lesser kestrels. Artichoke fields are chiefly used when abandoned after harvest, providing high prey availability and accessibility for kestrels during the brood raising stage of their breeding season. A mosaic of grassland and artichoke fields can thus be recommended for Mediterranean agricultural areas of the Natura2000 network, in which some intensive farming and lesser kestrels can coexist, if adequately framed in a friendly-to-wildlife agriculture policy. Such a potential optimal trade-off between avian population persistence and economic sustainability for farmers we have found, should be planned in alternative management of agro-ecosystems, enhancing the functioning of trophic chains. For our study area, we suggest at least farmers be: i) informed on the role of predators as biological agents for pest control; ii) granted to reduce the high level of chemicals currently used during cultivation in favour of organic farming; and iii) granted to maintain the artichoke fields until June, following completion of the harvest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Significant demographic fluctuations can have major genetic consequences in wild populations. The lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) has suffered both population declines and range fragmentation during the second half of the 20th century. In this study we analysed multilocus microsatellite data to assess the genetic structure of the species. Our analysis revealed significant genetic structuring of lesser kestrel populations, not only at the cross-continental scale, but also regionally within the Central and Eastern (CE) Mediterranean region. We detected signs of genetic bottlenecks in some of the peripheral populations coupled with small effective population sizes. Values of genetic differentiation among the largest populations were low, albeit significant, whereas the small peripheral CE Mediterranean populations showed higher levels of differentiation from all other populations. Gene flow levels were relatively low among the discontinuously distributed populations of the CE Mediterranean region. We argue that the observed spatial genetic structure can be attributed at some level to the past demographic decline experienced by the species. Finally, we identify management units in the region, and inform the design of conservation actions aimed at the increase of population sizes and dispersal rates among peripheral populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lesser kestrel males display inter-individual variation in melanin-based plumage traits, like ventral plumage colouration and breast/underwing spottiness. We explored whether such plumage variability was associated with single-nucleotide genetic polymorphisms of melanocortin-1-receptor (MC1R) and tyrosinase-related protein 1 (TYRP1), two genes involved in the melanogenesis pathway. No statistically significant associations between single-nucleotide mutations and male plumage traits emerged, though in some cases very rare (< 2%) homozygous mutated individuals displayed extreme plumage phenotypes. Hence, large inter-individual male Lesser Kestrel plumage variation, which is consistent between years and partly age related, was only marginally related to untranslated region and coding sequence variation of MC1R and TYRP1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present here the first report about Lesser Kestrels' flight height behaviour and potential collision risk with wind farms and power lines in two colonies (Gravina in Puglia and Altamura; Apulia, Italy) that present the highest density of Lesser Kestrels worldwide in urban areas. Using accurate GPS data-loggers on nine Lesser Kestrels, we collected data on flight activities during the nestling period. The tracked Lesser Kestrels spent 50% of the monitoring time at heights above ground level (AGL) lower than 41 m, and 75% of time below 98 m AGL. Flight heights resulted not significantly different between the two colonies. Instead, at night Lesser Kestrels resulted to fly at significantly lower altitudes than in the daytime. Our findings, although preliminary, underline the potential collision risk with power lines and wind farms at night in the Lesser Kestrels' colony of Gravina in Puglia. Instead, collision risk resulted negligible during the daytime for both colonies. We conclude that the disappearing of pseudo-steppes in the study area is forcing Lesser Kestrels to flight also at night for foraging purposes during the breading season, which in turn leads to an increased risk of collision with power lines and wind farms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Mean air temperatures and the frequency, intensity and duration of extreme weather events such as heatwaves are increasing due to climate change. Nest boxes experience more variable and extreme temperatures than natural cavities, which may reduce survival and reproductive success of the species which utilize them, but little is known about the factors which drive nest box temperature profiles. We quantified the potential for retrofitted insulation on nest boxes to modify internal temperatures and to mimic the thermal characteristics of natural cavities more closely. We tested three types of materials with insulative or reflective properties which were easy to retrofit to nest boxes: 3‐cm‐thick polystyrene, pleated foil batts and reflective paint. We found that polystyrene and foil batts reduced mean nest box temperatures during the day by 0.31 ± 0.01°C and 0.17 ± 0.01°C, respectively (but up to 5.84°C and 4.02°C). The effects of all insulation types were dependent on the time of day, and only polystyrene had a significant effect at night, with a greater capacity to retain heat (mean 0.21 ± 0.01°C warmer). Contrary to expectations, reflective paint caused a small increase in temperature during the late afternoon. In our study, the temperature modulation provided by insulation was able to match or exceed that due to variation in nest location and surrounding vegetation canopy cover. Our findings show that polystyrene and foil batts may offer effective and tractable means to mitigate the effects of extreme temperatures in nest boxes and thereby help achieve temperature profiles more similar to natural cavities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate warming would theoretically create conditions for the breeding range expansion of pseudo-steppe Mediterranean and long-distance migrant species and provide the possibility for these to overwinter in the same breeding areas. However, contemporary changes in rainfall regimes might have negative effects on the climate suitability and in turn, shrink species potential range. The lesser kestrel Falco naumanni is highly sensitive to rainfall oscillations and has recently extended its Italian breeding range towards northern latitudes and increasing its wintering records. We modelled the effects of temperature and rainfall on current and future climate suitability for lesser kestrels in both the breeding and wintering periods by using MaxEnt. Models were based on the distribution of 298 colonies and 40 wintering records. Future climate suitability was assessed under eight different scenarios.Spring rainfall amount resulted as the main determinant of breeding climate suitability, so its predicted reduction will determine a shrinkage in suitable areas (-42.10% in 2050; -32.07% in 2070). Specifically, the 66.05% of Italian colonies will be outside the climatically suitable area by 2050. However wide areas, suitable under current climate conditions, are still not occupied by lesser kestrel and allow the potential expansion of its Italian breeding range in the short term. Temperature seasonality mainly determined the species' winter climate suitability, which is overall predicted to boost in the next decades (145.03% in 2050; and 123.91% in 2070). All but one future scenarios predicted a northward shift of about 40 km for both breeding and wintering climate suitability. Despite its recent expansion, we have found that climate change will pose conservation concerns for the Italian breeding population of lesser kestrels. Indeed, changes in non-climate factors will also outline the future suitability of the Italian range for lesser kestrels in both seasons with effects that might both strengthen or mitigate climate effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni is considered a typically diurnal species, in a previous study we have provided the first report on its nocturnal activity in Italy even in rural areaswith no artificial illumination. In this study, using new,more complete and balanced data we provide further evidences that during the breeding season LesserKestrel is not a strictly diurnal species.Using accurate GPS data-loggers on LesserKestrels belonging to the two colonies of Gravina in Puglia andAltamura (Apulia region; Southern Italy), we have registered widespread nocturnal flightswith distances from nests up to 15 km.At night, all of the surveyed Lesser Kestrels were active even in areas with no artificial illumination, and theywere found in flight for about 25% of the tracking time. By comparing night-time and daytime periods, we found significant differences for three flight attributes: 1-minute flight length, distance from nest and distance from nearest roost. Instead, we found no significant differences in flight attributes betweenmales and females and between the two colonies at night. We propose and discuss several plausible explanations for detected Lesser Kestrels' nocturnal flight activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays the use of remote photography systems is very popular for diet assessment. Despite the popularity, there is a greater need for evaluation of these systems against traditional methods of diet assessment, such as direct visual observation. The diet of Lesser Kestrel nestlings and adult provisioning rate were assessed using cameras and direct observations at four nests with various brood sizes during the breeding season in 2013. The study was conducted in an intensively cultivated area that belongs to a Special Protected Area of the Natura 2000 network in central Greece. Diet composition (prey type and size) was not affected by the recording method, the sex of adults, the brood size, the period of the day or the age of nestlings. Tettigoniidae was the most frequent prey delivered by adults. Our results from both methods showed that males delivered more prey items than females, supporting the general consensus of reversed sexual dimorphism for the Lesser Kestrel. The provisioning rate was not significantly related to brood size, but it was affected by the method of observation, parent sex and the interaction of method and nestling age. According to the direct observations, provisioning rates increased as nestlings grew up, while they decreased based on camera information. Higher provisioning rates recorded in direct observations at later nestling stages, can be explained by higher food requirements of nestlings. The decrease in provisioning rate with nestling age was mostly affected by the camera function, as a result of digital limitations, nest type and Lesser Kestrels behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pheomelanin contributes to the pigmentation phenotype of animals by producing orange and light brown colours in the integument. However, pheomelanin synthesis in melanocytes requires consumption of glutathione ( GSH), the most important intracellular antioxidant. Therefore, a genetic control favouring the production of large amounts of pheomelanin for pigmentation may lead to physiological costs under environmental conditions that promote oxidative stress. We investigated this possibility in the context of breeding coloniality, a reproductive strategy that may affect oxidative stress. We found in lesser kestrel Falco naumanni nestlings that the GSH: GSSG ratio, which decreases with systemic oxidative stress, increased with the size of the colony where they were reared, but the expression in feather melanocytes of five genes involved in pheomelanin synthesis ( Slc7a11, Slc45a2, CTNS, MC1R and AGRP) did not vary with colony size. The antioxidant capacity ( TEAC) of lesser kestrel nestlings also increased with colony size, but in a manner that depended on Slc7a11 expression and not on the expression of the other genes. Thus, antioxidant capacity increased with colony size only in nestlings least expressing Slc7a11, a gene with a known role in mediating cysteine (a constituent amino acid of GSH) consumption for pheomelanin production. The main predictor of the intensity of pheomelanin-based feather colour was Slc45a2 expression followed in importance by Slc7a11 expression, hence suggesting that the genetic regulation of the pigmentation phenotype mediated by Slc7a11 and a lack of epigenetic lability in this gene limits birds from benefiting from the physiological benefits of coloniality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reintroductions have been increasingly used for species restoration and it seems that this conservation tool is going to be more used in the future. Nevertheless, there is not a clear consensus about the better procedure for that, consequently a better knowledge of how to optimize this kind of management is needed. Here we examined the dynamics of released long-lived bird populations (lesser kestrel, Falco naumanni, Bonelli's eagle Aquila fasciata, and bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus) in object-oriented simulated reintroduction programs. To do that, number of young per year and number of years of released necessary to achieve a successful reintroduced population were calculated. We define a successful reintroduction as one in which when the probability of extinction during two times the maximum live-span period for the species (20, 50, and 64 years respectively) was less than 0.001 (P<0.001) and they showed a positive trend in population size (r>0.00). Results showed that a similar total number of young (mean 98.33±5.26) must be released in all the species in all the scenarios in order to get a successful reintroduction. Consequently, as more young per year are released the new population is going to be larger at the end of the simulations, the lesser the negative effects in the donor population and the lowest the total budget needed will be. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing the variation in diet composition of a species, over different years and between periods, offers insights to comprehend its ecological niche as well as to define different feeding strategies. We studied the diet of the Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) by analysing 1040 regurgitated pellets collected in the city of Ioannina (northwestern Greece). We compared diet composition between the breeding period (data from years 2010-2015) and the pre-migration period (data from 2013-2015) at the study site. A total of 8920 prey items were identified and classified into 13 different prey families. The Lesser Kestrel shows a consistent pattern of diet composition throughout years, displaying significant differences between breeding and pre-migration periods. The diet is rather diverse during the breeding season (Levins' diet breadth, B=4.12) and is composed mainly of Orthoptera and Coleoptera, while during pre-migration, the species shows a more narrow diet breadth (B=1.98) and feeds more often and on larger amounts of Orthoptera. These results indicate a specialised feeding strategy during pre-migration. In addition, the examination of the Orthoptera consumption during this period indicates a peak in the abundance of grasshoppers (Acrididae) in the second half of August. We suggest that at this time birds exploit high elevation open grasslands around the roosting site where grasshopper abundance is high. Thus, such areas are of high conservation importance as Lesser Kestrels depend on this localised abundance of Orthoptera in order to fuel up before their trans-Saharan migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following a dramatic decline, the lesser kestrel Falco naumanni global population has recently stabilised, although it is still fluctuating in several countries, including Greece. Nestling growth rates and size at fledging greatly influence future survival and reproductive success, and therefore the study of postnatal growth can aid the understanding of population dynamics and the conservation of avian populations. We quantified body mass and morphological traits in female and male lesser kestrel nestlings from a lowland Greek breeding population. Nonlinear mixed models were used to describe and compare growth trajectories. Growth in body mass, tarsus and bill reached asymptotic values before fledging and was best described by the logistic equation, whereas total length grew linearly beyond the fledging phase. Random variation was found in the asymptote in body mass, the inflection point in body mass, tarsus and bill lengths and the intercept in total length, being substantially higher between nests than amongst siblings, implying differences in parental quality between nests and also an even distribution of parental care amongst siblings. Random effects were not observed on the growth rate constant, supporting the hypothesis that it varies little within populations. Females were significantly heavier and had longer bills and total length than males, whereas males were similar to females in tarsus growth. Nonlinear mixed models allowed us to describe a stage of avian life vital for future survival and reproductive output and reveal variation between nests, nestlings and the sexes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seasonal decline in breeding performance is a commonly observed pattern in birds, but disentangling the contributions of environmental conditions ("timing" hypothesis) and individual quality ("quality" hypothesis) to such a pattern is challenging. Moreover, despite the strong selection for early breeding, the individual optimization model predicts that each individual has an optimal breeding window. We investigated the causes and consequences of laying decisions in the lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) by combining a long-term dataset on reproductive traits with information on food availability. A marked seasonal decline was found in breeding success, mostly mediated by a decline in clutch size. The "timing" hypothesis, supported by the decline in consumption of mole crickets, key prey for prelaying females, seems to explain the seasonal trend in clutch size, as this pattern was recorded in both higher (adults) and lower (yearlings) quality individuals. Contrarily, the higher proportion of yearlings breeding late in the season, rather than a decay in food availability during chick rearing, seems to drive the decline in fledging success, giving support to the "quality" hypothesis. Advanced breeding and increased clutch size, as proxies of reproductive effort, were not offset by lower survival. Low repeatability in both these traits suggests that individual quality is a dynamic attribute and reproduction costs are minimized by individual optimization. Understanding the mechanisms driving individual breeding decisions is critical to anticipate species' ability to cope with environmental changes. Here, we show that lesser kestrels failing the prelaying food window opportunity compromise reproductive performance, mostly regardless of their individual quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) was considered extinct as a breeding species in Bulgaria, but recently a small breeding colony was found again in the south-eastern part of the country. Seven recent observations of flocks or solitary birds of the species in Bulgaria during the post-breeding period are presented and commented here. It is shown that the territory of the country is a regular area for post-breeding dispersal and pre-migratory feeding of lesser kestrels. The origin of these is not known, but most probably birds from the populations of the European part of Turkey, Greece, Republic of Macedonia and Albania are involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presentamos las tendencias y las características de un dormidero comunal pre-migratorio de Falco naumanni en la ciudad de Ioannina (Noroeste de Grecia), así como las zonas de campeo que usa la especie en este período. Durante los 15 años que duró el estudio, se registró un número máximo de 3500 individuos, concretamente en los años 2003 y 2004. Los dormideros se encuentran exclusivamente en ejemplares maduros de Platanus orientalis ubicados a orillas del lago Pamvotida, mientras que las zonas de campeo están en praderas alpinas a más de 34 km de los dormideros. En base al uso de un modelo de regresión logisitica binaria se puede predecir la presencia o ausencia de la especie en relación con la abundancia de ortópteros en la zona. Es vital la protección de los dormideros comunales y de las zonas de campeo durante la época de pre-migración para la conservación de la especie. [Traducción de Victoria Saravia editada] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined ringing recovery data of the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni in order to analyse its migration patterns and philopatry rates in Eastern Europe. In addition, we extracted counts of migrating birds from online databases and studied the use of the flyway as well as the phenology of both spring and autumn migrations through Greece. Birds appeared to migrate in the same mean direction in spring and autumn through the Italian and Balkan Peninsulas. During spring, movements took place on a broad front from March until mid-May with a peak in mid-April; in autumn, birds migrated through Greece on a narrower front from early August to early October, with most of individuals passing through Greece in mid-September. Finally, philopatry rates were higher for adults, while juvenile birds dispersed more often and at longer distances, up to 974 km away. Our results on migration patterns generally agree with those in other studies, but we found some evidence of long-distance premigratory movements towards mainland Greece that could also shape the narrower front migration in autumn. In addition, long distance dispersal movements of juveniles in southeastern Europe, where Lesser Kestrel populations show a fragmented distribution, could facilitate gene flow between populations, thus avoiding the negative effects of mating with genetically similar individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diet composition and foraging behaviour may show considerable variation among population groups (such as sex and age classes), with potentially important consequences for population dynamics. Thus, failure to account for intra-specific differences in trophic ecology can bias our understanding of different aspects of population ecology and limit the implementation of effective management and conservation strategies. Although countless studies have investigated the diet of birds, comparatively few have tried to describe intra-specific sources of dietary variation. Here, we used stable isotope analysis ( SIA) to investigate sex- and age-related dietary segregation in the lesser kestrel Falco naumanni breeding in South Iberia and to discuss potential mechanisms involved in such segregation. Females had a narrower isotopic niche width and significantly more depleted δ13C signatures than males during the courtship period, likely due to a higher consumption of energetically rich mole crickets. Our results suggest that sex-specific differences in the diet of lesser kestrels do not result from intra-specific competition and are unlikely to be explained by sexual size dimorphism alone. Instead, the main driving force of observed sexual segregation appears to be the different energetic requirements of males and females before laying, when females need a higher allocation of resources to egg production. δ15N isotopic signatures differed significantly between adults and chicks and niche overlap between these age classes was low. Stable isotopic mixing models showed that, compared to adults, the diet of chicks was less diverse and mainly dominated by grasshoppers. Different resource allocation between chicks and adults might also result from different energy requirements, as rapidly growing chicks require more energy than adults, ultimately leading to a parent-offspring dietary segregation. Finally, overall agreement between pellet analysis and SIA methods highlight the potential of SIA for assessing intra-specific variation in dietary regimes which is often unfeasible through conventional approaches of diet assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural intensification is considered the major cause of decline in farmland bird populations, especially in the Mediterranean region. Food shortage increased by the interaction between agricultural intensification and density-dependent mechanisms could influence the population dynamics of colonial birds. We used demographic data on lesser kestrels ( Falco naumanni ), a key species of Mediterranean pseudo-steppes, to understand the importance of land-use changes and density-dependent mechanisms in the light of its fluctuating conservation status in the Western Palearctic. Our analysis indicated an important influence of land uses (artichokes, arable and grassland fields) and colony size on kestrel survival rates. The strong habitat effect revealed the unsuitability of intensive arable lands with respect to extensive grasslands for lesser kestrels. Notably, artichokes, a winter-intensive crop, proved to be a high-quality habitat as they were associated with survival values equal to those of grassland. This is likely due to prey availability and reveals that non-traditional crops may provide suitable habitats for lesser kestrels. Information theory gave strong support to the negative influence of colony size on fecundity, albeit a small one, for its positive effect on survival probability. The estimated population growth rate was negative for all three habitats, indicating a decline over time and urging conservation actions in all of the areas studied. This decline was much higher in colonies surrounded by arable fields. In sensitivity analyses, λ indicated that adult survival was the parameter with the greatest effect on population growth, followed by survival of fledglings and fecundity. Our study showed how the costs and benefits of group living interact with agricultural intensification to drive species demography. In addition, we integrated significant information on one of the largest lesser kestrel populations to fine tune the most effective conservation strategy to prevent the collapse of the species in a relevant part of its range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni) is a small migratory falcon which nests colonially on inland cliffs and ruined buildings. Bandar Turkman city holds one of the most important breeding colonies in Iran. It nests in holes in roofs, walls or on ledges of buildings throughout of the city. We tried to find out whether there is a relationship between nest-site selection and breeding success. Although height from the ground is the most important factor in nest-site selection by F. naumanni, height from the floor and distance to the nearest neighbour are other main factors which affect breeding success. This could be the result of accessibility by human and natural predators such as domestic cats which threaten nests. The number of possible nest-sites in the study area is limited as many old, ruined buildings are being replaced by new constructions; this colonially breeding bird species therefore suffers from a lack of highly suitable nest-sites and this directly affect breeding success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]