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The effects of N6-(2-isopentenyl) adenosine (IP) and p-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (CPA) on the propagation of Antirrhinum majus have yet to be elucidated. This study compares plant growth regulators' effects on enhancing propagation efficiency in snapdragon. In the seedling development phase, IP at 1.0 mg L-1 provided the highest germination ratio (91.11 ± 9.30%). The 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) treatment at 1.0 mg L-1 gave the highest number of shoots (4.42 ± 0.30) whereas the medium with 0.50 mg L-1 IP triggered shoot elongation (3.80 ± 0.28 cm) from germinating seeds. The medium with 1.0 mg L-1 IP gave the highest number of leaves (12.33 ± 1.77) and roots (2.96 ± 0.32). IP treatment at 0.50 mg L-1 produced the greatest increase in seedling root lengths (2.50 ± 0.31 cm). In the shoot multiplication phase, thidiazuron (TDZ) at 1.0 mg L-1 gave the maximum number of shoots (10.04 ± 2.42 per nodal explant) while BAP treatment at the same concentration triggered shoot elongation (5.99 ± 0.29 cm). In the rooting phase, 3-indoleacetic acid (IAA) treatment at 0.50 mg L-1 induced the highest rooting rate (100%), root production (4.93 ± 0.48 per shoot), and root length (7.16 ± 0.97 cm). IAA treatments did not trigger callus production. However, the CPA treatments induced consistently higher callogenesis responses (96% and 100%), resulting in a minimal rooting response. The findings suggested using IP to increase seedling development without causing a restriction in root development, TDZ to improve shoot multiplication efficiency, and CPA to produce high-frequency calli production in ornamental snapdragon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the classes of the plant developmental programmed cell death (PCD) is vacuolar cell death or autolysis. The results of the transmission electron microscope (TEM) studies indicated that this type of PCD occurs during the petal senescence of Antirrhinum majus "Legend White" flowers. The major hallmarks of the process related to the ultrastructure of the cells involved chloroplast degradation, vacuolation, chromatin condensation, cell wall swelling, degradation of Golgi apparatus, protoplasmic shrinkage, degradation of the endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear fragmentation, rupture of tonoplast, and plasma membrane. Macroautophagy and microautophagy processes were also clearly observed during vacuole formation. As in yeasts, in the present study, Golgi apparatus became autophagosome-like structures during degradation that had autophagy activity and then disappeared. Our results revealed a type of selective microautophagy, piecemeal microautophagy of the nucleus (PMN), in nuclear degradation during PCD of petals that has not previously been reported in plants. Moreover, vesicular structures, such as paramural and multilamellar bodies, were observed in some stages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the current era of advancement in science and technology, the microbial resistance against synthetic medication is alarming due to its harmful effect on the human body; therefore, researchers are now focusing on plant-derived bioactive compounds or the use of their extracts. The extract of the plants contains diverse valuable bioactive compounds which found effective in controlling infectious diseases. The activities of these bioactive components are directly related to the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of those bioactive compounds present in the extract of plant extract. For this purpose, two herbal plants Antirrhinum majus, & Dodonaea viscosa were collected from the Karachi Sea side region to investigate their antimicrobial activities in their methanolic extracts. The minimum inhibitory count was found effective in the determination of antimicrobial activities of extracts. Results showed that maximum inhibitory count was measured for Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus while lower for Escherichia coli, Klebsiella numoneae, and Salmonella enterica. It indicates that these plants contain bioactive compounds which can be extracted as future bio-medications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A highly popular and wellknown flowering species for the unmistakable shape of its velvety and beautifully coloured flowers, Antirrhinum majus is often used in garden decor due to its long flowering period, ease of cultivation and low maintenance during the growing season. This study aims to investigate the behaviour of a dwarf variety of the Antirrhinum majus species grown in both vertical systems for green façades and also in a control field under the climate conditions in the north-eastern region of Romania. The façades of the vertical structure were been oriented towards a cardinal point, each of them having four equal layers arranged on height. The study found that this dwarf variety adapts very well to vertical systems, maintaining its ornamental features for a long time. During the experiment, observations included the diameter, height and number of flowers per plant in the control variant and on each side of the experimental structure. The highest values in July and August for plant diameter, plant height and the number of flowers were shown for the western facade and the lowest for the control variant. Instead, the control variant in September held the first position showing the highest means for all three monitored parameters and the lowest were for the southern orientation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bisphenol-A (BPA), used in the production of polycarbonate plastics, exerts complex effects on the development of organisms and on their epigenomes as a methylation disruptor. BPA is of concern due to its ubiquity in the environment. In contrast, folic acid can promote plant growth and has been shown to correct the methyl-disrupting effects of BPA in mice. We investigated the effects of prolonged exposure to BPA and folic acid on plant height, dry mass, and DNA methylation of floral tissues of Antirrhinum majus L. (snapdragons) from seedling to floral senescence. At low and medium concentrations (5 and 25 mg/L), BPA had a growth-promoting effect early in development and appeared to accelerate floral development compared with the controls. At senescence, plants treated with the low and medium concentrations of BPA had decreased dry mass compared with the controls. Folic acid promoted growth early through mid-vegetative development and also promoted early flowering. In general, the acceleration of floral development associated with the low concentration of BPA and folic acid correlated with higher DNA methylation percentages. These data suggest that prolonged exposure to BPA influences plant growth and floral development, and causes epigenetic modifications that may potentially be alleviated through the application of folic acid, thus suggesting the significance of folic acid for environmental protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The introduction of edible flowers into our menu and their consumption significantly increases as a result of decorative, taste or aroma qualities. Current research on the chemical composition of edible flowers indicates a high content of vitamins, mineral compounds, essential oils, fibre, mucilage and other compounds characterized by a very high antioxidant activity. The aim of the experiment was to compare the nutritional value and antioxidant activity of three annual and two perennial ornamental plant species with edible flowers: Mimulus x hybridus L. 'Magic Yellow' and 'Magic Red', Antirrhinum majus L. 'Cavalier', Dianthus chinensis L. 'Chianti', Hemerocallis x hybrida Hort. and Monarda didyma L. Among the edible flower species compared in the study, M. didyma L. showed the highest nutritional value and antioxidant activity (DPPH and ABTS). While flowers of D. chinensis L. 'Chianti' were characterized by highest content of antioxidants such as L-ascorbic acid, total anthocyanins, total polyphenols and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), H. × hybrida and A. majus L. 'Cavalier' flowers - by the highest content of total soluble sugars and sugar/acid ratio, and M. × hybridus L. 'Magic Red' and 'Magic Yellow' - by the highest content of total carotenoids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mediterranean-native perennial plant Antirrhinum majus was scrutinized in this study for its antioxidant activity and its total phenolic content in order to test for the plant's wound-healing capability. The traditional uses of this plant to treat gum scurvy, various tumors, ulcers, and hemorrhoids were the main idea behind this study. Leaves and flowers of the A. majus were extracted by maceration. Pilot qualitative phytochemical tests were made to check the presence of various secondary metabolites. Quantitatively, the flowers' macerate indicated superlative results regarding antioxidant activity and total phenolic content. However, the in vivo wound-healing capability study was made using 30 Wistar strain albino rats. This innovative part of the study revealed that the healing power of the flowers' extract ointment (5% w/w) was superior compared to the leaves' extract (5% w/w) and the positive-control ointments (MEBO) (1.5% w/w) (p ≤ 0.001). This activity was assessed by visual examination, wound-length measurement, and estimation of hydroxyproline content. Antirrhinum majus is a promising plant to be considered for wound healing. However, further testing (including histological examination and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis) is necessary to understand more about its mechanisms of action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genomes of closely-related species or populations often display localized regions of enhanced relative sequence divergence, termed genomic islands. It has been proposed that these islands arise through selective sweeps and/or barriers to gene flow. Here, we genetically dissect a genomic island that controls flower color pattern differences between two subspecies of Antirrhinum majus, A.m.striatum and A.m.pseudomajus, and relate it to clinal variation across a natural hybrid zone. We show that selective sweeps likely raised relative divergence at two tightly-linked MYB-like transcription factors, leading to distinct flower patterns in the two subspecies. The two patterns provide alternate floral guides and create a strong barrier to gene flow where populations come into contact. This barrier affects the selected flower color genes and tightlylinked loci, but does not extend outside of this domain, allowing gene flow to lower relative divergence for the rest of the chromosome. Thus, both selective sweeps and barriers to gene flow play a role in shaping genomic islands: sweeps cause elevation in relative divergence, while heterogeneous gene flow flattens the surrounding “sea," making the island of divergence stand out. By showing how selective sweeps establish alternative adaptive phenotypes that lead to barriers to gene flow, our study sheds light on possible mechanisms leading to reproductive isolation and speciation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To assess the effect a new animal-derived biostimulant on the growth, root morphology, nitrogen content, leaf gas exchange of greenhouse potted snapdragon, three treatments were compared: (a) three doses of biostimulant (D): 0 (D0 or control), 0.1 (D0.1), and 0.2 g L−1 (D0.2); (b) two biostimulant application methods (M): foliar spray and root drenching; (c) two F1Antirrhinum majus L. hybrids (CV): “Yellow floral showers” and “Red sonnet.” The treatments were arranged in a randomized complete-block design with four replicates, with a total of 48 experimental units. Plant height (+11%), number of shoots (+20%), total shoot length (+10%), number of leaves (+33%), total leaf area (+29%), and number of flowers (+59%) and total aboveground dry weight (+13%) were significantly increased by the biostimulant application compared to the control, regardless of the dose. The lowest dose resulted in the best effect on the ground plant dry weight (+38%) and, in order to the root system, on total length (+55%), average diameter (+36%), volume (+66%), tips (+49%), crossings (+88%), forks (+68%), projected (+62%), and total surface area (+28%). Compared to the control, plants treated with the biostimulant significantly enhanced leaf (+16%) and root (+8%) nitrogen content, photosynthetic rate (+52%), transpiration rate (+55%), and stomatal conductance (+81%), although there were no changes in dark-adapted chlorophyll fluorescence. Differences in the application method were not evident in the aboveground morphological traits, except in the plant shoot number (root drenching: +10%). The foliar spray compared to root drenching had a significant effect only on flower dry weight (3.8 vs. 3.0 g plant−1). On the other hand, root drenching had a positive effect on ground dry weight (2.7 vs. 2.3 g plant−1), root morphology, leaf-N and root-N content (+3%), transpiration rate (+21%), stomatal conductance (+40%), concentration of CO2 in intracellular spaces (+11%), as well as on the efficiency of Photosystem II (+11%). A higher pot quality was obtained in “Red sonnet” compared to “Yellow floral shower.” Based on our findings, applying the biostimulant to potted snapdragon at the lowest dose, as part of a fertilizing regime, improves the crop quality in an agro-environmental sustainable way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An Eustoma grandiflorum APETALA1 (EgAP1) gene showing high homology to the SQUA subfamily of MADS-box genes was isolated and characterized. EgAP1, containing a conserved euAP1 motif at the C-terminus, showed high sequence identity to Antirrhinum majus SQUAMOSA in the SQUA subfamily. EgAP1 mRNA was detected in the leaf and expressed significantly higher in young flower buds than in mature flower buds. In flowers, EgAP1 mRNA was strongly detected in sepal, weakly detected in petal and was absent in stamen and carpel. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants ectopically expressing EgAP1 flowered early and produced terminal flowers. In addition, the conversion of petals into stamen-like structures was also observed in 35S::EgAP1 flowers. 35S::EgAP1 was able to complement the ap1 flower defects by restoring the defect for sepal formation and significantly increasing second whorl petal production in Arabidopsis ap1 mutant plants. These results revealed that EgAP1 is the APETALA1 homolog in E. grandiflorum and that the function of EgAP1 is involved in floral induction and flower formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted on Antirrhinum majus plant to investigate the effect of the light selective and colored covers red, yellow and control with spraying by paclobutrazol in three concentrations (0,50 and100 mg.L-1) on some vegetative growth. The factorial experiment was carried out within Randomized Complete Block design using three replicates with six plants for each replicate. Results indicated that there was a significant decrease in the plant characters grown under the red and yellow polyethylene covers in comparison with the plants grown under the control cover. These characters were the plants height, number of the internodes, number of branches, diameter of the crown area, number of leaves, leaf area and the total carbohydrate in the leaves the mean values were: 14.84, 17.31 cm, 7.66, 7.11 internode per plant-1, 8.55, 7.77 branch per plant-1, 15.33, 15.44cm, 112.66, 108.55 leaf per plant-1, 1861.6, 234746 cm2, 43.74, 51,11 % respectively. Also, there was a significant increase in the ratio of chlorophyll in the leaves which was 40.33 and 39.11Spad unit, respectively. Spraying with paclobutrazol at 50 and 100 mlg.L-1 led to a significant decrease in the plant height 18.46 and 18.80cm and number of leaves 110.33 and 111.55 leaf per plant-1 respectively, whereas there was no significant effect on the other characters of the plants sprayed with both concentrations of paclobutrazol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In continuous populations with local migration, nearby pairs of individuals have on average more similar genotypes than geographically well-separated pairs. A barrier to gene flow distorts this classical pattern of isolation by distance. Genetic similarity is decreased for sample pairs on different sides of the barrier and increased for pairs on the same side near the barrier. Here, we introduce an inference scheme that uses this signal to detect and estimate the strength of a linear barrier to gene flow in two dimensions. We use a diffusion approximation to model the effects of a barrier on the geographic spread of ancestry backward in time. This approach allows us to calculate the chance of recent coalescence and probability of identity by descent. We introduce an inference scheme that fits these theoretical results to the geographic covariance structure of bialleleic genetic markers. It can estimate the strength of the barrier as well as several demographic parameters. We investigate the power of our inference scheme to detect barriers by applying it to a wide range of simulated data. We also showcase an example application to an Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon) flower-color hybrid zone, where we do not detect any signal of a strong genome-wide barrier to gene flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small RNAs (sRNAs) regulate genes in plants and animals. Here, we show that populationwide differences in color patterns in snapdragon flowers are caused by an inverted duplication that generates sRNAs. The complexity and size of the transcripts indicate that the duplication represents an intermediate on the pathway to microRNA evolution. The sRNAs repress a pigment biosynthesis gene, creating a yellow highlight at the site of pollinator entry. The inverted duplication exhibits steep clines in allele frequency in a natural hybrid zone, showing that the allele is under selection. Thus, regulatory interactions of evolutionarily recent sRNAs can be acted upon by selection and contribute to the evolution of phenotypic diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developmental genetic studies of Antirrhinum majus demonstrated that two transcription factors from the MYB gene family, RADIALIS (RAD) and DIVIRICATA (DIV), interact through antagonism to regulate floral dorsoventral asymmetry. Interestingly, similar antagonistic interaction found among proteins of FSM1 (RAD-like) and MYBI (DIV-like) in Solanum lycopersicum is involved in fruit development. Here, we report the reconstruction of the phylogeny of I-box-like and R-R-type clades, where RAD- and DIV-like genes belong, respectively. We also examined the homology of these antagonistic MYB proteins using these phylogenies. The results show that there are likely three paralogs of RAD-/I-box-like genes, RAD1, RAD2, and RAD3, which originated in the common ancestor of the core eudicots. In contrast, R-R-type sequences fall into two major clades, RR1 and RR2, the result of gene duplication in the common ancestor of both monocots and dicots. RR1 was divided into clades RR1A, RR1B, and RR1C, while RR2 was divided into clades RR2A/DIV1, RR2B/DIV2, and RR2C/DIV3. We demonstrate that among similar antagonistic interactions in An. Majus and So. lycopersicum, RAD-like genes originate from the RAD2 clade, while DIV-like genes originate from distantly related paralogs of the R-R-type lineage. The phylogenetic analyses of these two MYB clades lay the foundation for future comparative studies including testing the evolution of the antagonistic relationship of proteins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bilateral symmetry of flowers is a relevant novelty that has occurred many times throughout the evolution of flowering plants. In Antirrhinum majus, establishment of flower dorso-ventral asymmetry ismainly due to interaction of TCP (CYC and DICH) andMYB (DIV, RAD, and DRIF) transcription factors. In the present study, we characterized 8 DIV-, 4 RAD-, and 2 DRIF-like genes from the transcriptome of Orchis italica, an orchid species with bilaterally symmetric and resupinate flowers. We found a similar number of DIV- and RAD-like geneswithin the genomes of Phalaenopsis equestris and Dendrobium catenatum orchids. Orchid DIV- and RADlike proteins share conservedmotifswhose distribution reflects their phylogeny and analysis of the genomic organization revealed a single intron containing many traces of transposable elements. Evolutionary analysis has shown that purifying selection acts on the DIV- andRAD-like coding regions in orchids, with relaxation of selective constraints in a branch of the DIV-like genes. Analysis of the expression patterns of DIV-andRAD-likegenes in O. italica revealed possible redundant functions for someof them. In theperianthof O. italica, the ortholog of DIVandDRIF of A.majus are expressed in all tissues, whereas RAD is mainly expressed intheouter tepals and lip. These data allow for proposal of an evolutionary conservedmodel inwhich the expression of the orthologs of the DIV, RAD, and DRIF genes might be related to establishment of flower bilateral symmetry in the nonmodel orchid species O. italica. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A greenhouse study was performed in order to investigate the effects of three arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) species on vegetative growth, water relations, and mineral composition parameters of snapdragon ( Antirrhinum majus cv. Bells white) under irrigation from different water sources. Five irrigation treatments included using purely desalinized (fresh) water (DW), as a control, three different blends of DW with saline ground water from a well with increasing salinity, and one with 100% of saline well water. Inoculation with AMF enhanced growth rates and a relative water content of snapdragon plants grown under well-water irrigation. AMF also improved the leaf water potential and increased water-use efficiency of the plants. Shoot and root dry masses were higher in the AMF-treated plants than those in AMF-free plants. In both shoots and roots, concentrations of total P, Ca, N, Mg, and K were higher in the AMF-treated plants compared with AMF-free plants under salt-stress conditions. Shoot Cl and Na concentrations were lower in the AMF-treated plants than those in the AMF-free plants grown under well-water irrigation. Snapdragon plants exhibited a high degree of dependency on AMF; it improved plant growth rates and leaf water relations, particularly, with increasing salinity of irrigation water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have the potential to replace high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps as the main delivery method of supplemental lighting (SL) in greenhouses. However, few studies have compared growth under the different lamp types. We grew seedlings of geranium (Pelargonium 3hortorum), pepper (Capsicum annuum), petunia (Petunia 3hybrida), snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus), and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) at 20 8C under six lighting treatments: five that delivered a photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 90 μmol·m-2·s-1 from HPS lamps (HPS90) or LEDs [four treatments composed of blue (B, 400-500 nm), red (R, 600-700 nm), or white LEDs] and one that delivered 10 μmol·m-2·s-1 from HPS lamps (HPS10), which served as a control with matching photoperiod. Lamps operated for 16 h·d-1 for 14 to 40 days, depending on cultivar and season. The LED treatments defined by their percentages of B, green (G, 500-600 nm), and R light were B10R90, B20R80, B10G5R85, and B15G5R80, whereas the HPS treatments emitted B6G61R33. Seedlings of each cultivar grown under the 90 μmol·m-2·s-1 SL treatments had similar dry shoot weights and all except pepper had a similar plant height, leaf area, and leaf number. After transplant to a common environment, geranium 'Ringo Deep Scarlet' and petunia 'Single Dreams White' grown under HPS90 flowered 3 days earlier than those grown under HPS10, but flowering time was not different from that in LED treatments. There were no consistent differences in morphology or subsequent flowering among seedlings grown under HPS90 and LED SL treatments. The inclusion of white light in the LED treatments played an insignificant role in growth and development when applied as SL with the background ambient light. The LED fixtures in this study consumed substantially less electricity than the HPS lamps while providing the same PPFD, and seedlings produced were of similar quality, making LEDs a suitable technology option for greenhouse SL delivery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Flower phylogenetics and genetically controlled development have been revolutionised during the last two decades. However, some of these evolutionary aspects are still debatable. MADS-box genes are known to play essential role in specifying the floral organogenesis and differentiation in numerous model plants like Petunia hybrida, Arabidopsis thaliana and Antirrhinum majus. SEPALLATA (SEP) genes, belonging to the MADS-box gene family, are members of the ABCDE and quartet models of floral organ development and play a vital role in flower development. However, few studies of the genes in Prunus mume have yet been conducted. Results: In this study, we cloned four PmSEPs and investigated their phylogenetic relationship with other species. Expression pattern analyses and yeast two-hybrid assays of these four genes indicated their involvement in the floral organogenesis with PmSEP4 specifically related to specification of the prolificated flowers in P. mume. It was observed that the flower meristem was specified by PmSEP1 and PmSEP4, the sepal by PmSEP1 and PmSEP4, petals by PmSEP2 and PmSEP3, stamens by PmSEP2 and PmSEP3 and pistils by PmSEP2 and PmSEP3. Conclusion: With the above in mind, flower development in P. mume might be due to an expression of SEP genes. Our findings can provide a foundation for further investigations of the transcriptional factors governing flower development, their molecular mechanisms and genetic basis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ectopic expression of the MYB transcription factor of AmROSEA1 from Antirrhinum majus has been reported to change anthocyanin and other metabolites in several species. In this study, we found that overexpression of AmRosea1 significantly improved the tolerance of transgenic rice to drought and salinity stresses. Transcriptome analysis revealed that a considerable number of stress-related genes were affected by exogenous AmRosea1 during both drought and salinity stress treatments. These affected genes are involved in stress signal transduction, the hormone signal pathway, ion homeostasis and the enzymes that remove peroxides. This work suggests that the AmRosea1 gene is a potential candidate for genetic engineering of crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The response of plants to salt stress involves dynamic changes in growth and signaling leading to successful adaptation or death. To elucidate how these opposed events are coordinated we identified a salt-tolerant ( obesifruticosa ) and a salt-sensitive ( aestiva) Antirrhinum majus mutants using shoots as sensitive indicator of stress magnitude. A series of physiological tests were performed that compared the response after 6 h and 3 days of these contrasting mutants grown in agar under a single (200 mM) NaCl concentration, including shoot area, root length, relative water content, plant height, and overall biomass accumulation. Additional measurements of ABA content, chlorophyll degradation, ethylene production, net photosynthesis rates and Na + , K + , Ca 2+ , and Mg 2+ content were also reported. RNA-seq analysis was performed on the two mutants after 6 h and 3 days under 200 mM NaCl. A total of 9199 transcripts were found to be differentially expressed in response to NaCl treatment in the two mutants. A large collection of known genes, including MAPKs, CDKs, CDPKs, CIPKs, various transcription factors, various ion transport proteins, and various genes involved in ABA and ethylene signaling pathways were described in detail that displayed differential expression profiles. Overall these data provided evidences of a putative osmotic tolerance sensing and signaling mechanism through a better integration and transduction of environmental cues into growth programs. The reprogramming of calcium-signaling components, generates specific stress signatures affecting differentially the salinity tolerance traits, such as tissue tolerance and anion exclusion. Interestingly, the hormones ABA and ethylene may action as a positive regulators of salt acclimation by the modulation of their signal transduction pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the effects of organic fertilizers on internal quality and rooting of snapdragons (Antirrhinum majus) were investigated. Seedlings of 'White Rocket', 'Rocket Gold', 'Orchid', 'Red Stone' and 'Red Rocket' species were transplanted into 12 L pots filled with 1:1 sand: soil mixture at the beginning of March 2011. Two different liquid biological fertilizers were used. The first one is the Effective Microorganisms (EM®) consisting of lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus plantarum), photosynthesis bacteria (Rhodopseudomonas palustris) and fermentation bacteria (Saccharomyces cervisiae); the second one is Rhizo Vital 42® consisting of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens bacteria. The physiological quality of the petals was investigated. With regard to petal P-dissipation values, while EM treatments yielded almost identical results with the control treatment, Rhizo Vital 42 treatments had lower yield values than the control treatment. Both organic fertilizer treatments improved rooting and effects of EM treatments on rooting were found to be significant. Biophoton measurements were also performed over the petals and photoluminescence values of fertilizer treatments of all species were found to be lower than the control plants. In other words, organic fertilizer treatments improved the quality by decreasing the stress levels in petals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The origin of the flower was a key innovation in the history of complex organisms, dramatically altering Earth's biota. Advances in phylogenetics, developmental genetics, and genomics during the past 25 years have substantially advanced our understanding of the evolution of flowers, yet crucial aspects of floral evolution remain, such as the series of genetic and morphological changes that gave rise to the first flowers; the factors enabling the origin of the pentamerous eudicot flower, which characterizes ∼70% of all extant angiosperm species; and the role of gene and genome duplications in facilitating floral innovations. A key early concept was the ABC model of floral organ specification, developed by Elliott Meyerowitz and Enrico Coen and based on two model systems, Arabidopsis thaliana and Antirrhinum majus. Yet it is now clear that these model systems are highly derived species, whose molecular genetic-developmental organization must be very different from that of ancestral, as well as early, angiosperms. In this article, we will discuss how new research approaches are illuminating the early events in floral evolution and the prospects for further progress. In particular, advancing the next generation of research in floral evolution will require the development of one or more functional model systems from among the basal angiosperms and basal eudicots. More broadly, we urge the development of "model clades" for genomic and evolutionary-developmental analyses, instead of the primary use of single "model organisms." We predict that new evolutionary models will soon emerge as genetic/genomic models, providing unprecedented new insights into floral evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spatial processes have a major influence on the stability of species interaction networks and their resilience to environmental fluctuations. Here, we combine field observations and a dynamic model to understand how spatial processes may affect a network composed of the flowering plant Antirrhinum majus, its cohort of pollinators, and a specialist seed-predator and its parasitoid., The interactions taking place within this system were investigated by determining the fate of flowers and fruits on flowering and fruiting stems at 16 study sites. We then used this information to estimate spatial and temporal variation in the pollination rate, parasitism rate and hyperparasitism rate., We found that the plants were pollinator-limited, with relatively variable fruit-to-flower ratios across sites. On almost all sites, plants were both parasitized and hyperparasitized, at a low to moderate rate., Comparing our field observations with a tritrophic Nicholson-Bailey model, we found that empirical data are not always consistent with the conditions for local tritrophic persistence. This suggests that other mechanisms such as random disturbances and recolonizations (patch dynamics) or inter-site migration through metacommunity dynamics (source-sink dynamics) play a role in this system. Model simulations showed that dispersal could contribute to increasing tritrophic persistence in this system, and that source-sink structure, not just environmental stochasticity, may cause the observed pattern of spatial variation., Synthesis. We defined and measured metrics related to species interactions and densities. This led us to suggest that the functioning of the A. majus metacommunity is more consistent with source-sink than patch metacommunity dynamics, highlighting the extent to which dispersal explains the persistence of the system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tremendous progress has been achieved over the past 25 years or more of research on the molecular mechanisms of floral organ identity, patterning, and development. While collections of floral homeotic mutants of Antirrhinum majus laid the foundation already at the beginning of the previous century, it was the genetic analysis of these mutants in A. majus and Arabidopsis thaliana that led to the development of the ABC model of floral organ identity more than 20 years ago. This intuitive model kick-started research focused on the genetic mechanisms regulating flower development, using mainly A. thaliana as a model plant. In recent years, interactions among floral homeotic proteins have been elucidated, and their direct and indirect target genes are known to a large extent. Here, we provide an overview over the advances in understanding the molecular mechanism orchestrating A. thaliana flower development. We focus on floral homeotic protein complexes, their target genes, evidence for their transport in floral primordia, and how these new results advance our view on the processes downstream of floral organ identity, such as organ boundary formation or floral organ patterning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding how pollinator behavior may influence pollen transmission across floral types is a major challenge, as pollinator decision depends on a complex range of environmental cues and prior experience. Here we report an experiment using the plant Antirrhinum majus and the bumblebee Bombus terrestris to investigate how prior learning experience may affect pollinator preferences between floral types when these are presented together. We trained naive bumblebees to forage freely on flowering individuals of either A. majus pseudomajus (magenta flowers) or A. majus striatum (yellow flowers) in a flight cage. We then used a Y-maze device to expose trained bumblebees to a dual choice between the floral types. We tested the influence of training on their choice, depending on the type of plant signals available (visual signals, olfactory signals, or both). Bumblebees had no innate preference for either subspecies. Bumblebees trained on the yellow-flowered subspecies later preferred the yellow type, even when only visual or only olfactory signals were available, and their preference was not reinforced when both signal types were available. In contrast, bumblebees trained on the magenta-flowered subspecies showed no further preference between floral types and took slightly more time to make their choice. Since pollinator constancy has been observed in wild populations of A. majus with mixed floral types, we suggest that such constancy likely relies on short-term memory rather than acquired preference through long-term memory induced by prior learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: CYCLOIDEA2 (CYC2)-like and RADIALIS (RAD)-like genes are needed for the normal development of corolla bilateral symmetry in Antirrhinum majus L. (snapdragon, Plantaginaceae, Lamiales). However, if and how changes in expression of CYC2-like and RAD-like genes correlate with the origin of corolla bilateral symmetry early in Lamiales remains largely unknown. The asymmetrical expression of CYC2-like and/or RAD-like genes during floral meristem development could be ancestral or derived in Plantaginaceae. METHODS: We used in situ RNA localization to examine the expression of CYC2-like and RAD-like genes in two early-diverging Lamiales. KEY RESULTS: CYC2-like and RAD-like genes are expressed broadly in the floral meristems in early-diverging Lamiales with radially symmetrical corollas, in contrast to their restricted expression in adaxial/lateral regions in core Lamiales. The expression pattern of CYC2-like genes has evolved in stepwise fashion, in that CYC2-like genes are likely expressed briefly in the floral meristem during flower development in sampled Oleaceae; prolonged expression of CYC2-like genes in petals originated in the common ancestor of Tetrachondraceae and core Lamiales, and asymmetrical expression in adaxial/lateral petals appeared later, in the common ancestor of the core Lamiales. Likewise, expression of RAD-like genes in petals appeared in early-diverging Lamiales or earlier; asymmetrical expression in adaxial/lateral petals then appeared in core Lamiales. CONCLUSIONS: These data plus published reports of CYC2-like and RAD-like genes show that asymmetrical expression of these two genes is likely derived and correlates with the origins of corolla bilateral symmetry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Commercial bedding plant production in northern latitudes often begins in late winter and continues through spring, when average outdoor temperatures require growers to actively heat their greenhouses (GHs). High tunnels (HTs) offer energy savings as they are passively heated and cooled structures that have a low initial cost. As a result, they have been used in northern latitudes to advance and extend the growing season and improve the quality of high-value horticultural crops. However, there is limited published information on growing bedding plants in HTs in northern latitudes. Our objectives were to quantify the effects of transplant date in an HT with or without a rowcover (RC) compared with a traditional heated GH on the growth and morphology of three cold-tolerant bedding plant species at two northern latitude locations, Purdue University (Purdue) and Cornell University (Cornell). Seedlings of snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus L. 'Liberty Classic Yellow'), dianthus (Dianthus chinensis L. 'Telstar Crimson'), and petunia (Petunia x hybrida Vilm.-Andr. 'Wave Pink') were transplanted on weeks 13, 14, and 15 in 2012 (Purdue) and 2013 (both locations) and moved to either a glass-glazed GH or an HT without (HT) or with a rowcover (HT+RC). Several quality measurements increased when plants were grown in the HT compared with those grown in the GH. Dianthus and petunia transplanted at Purdue during week 13 in the HT and HT+RC were 33% and 47% shorter and had 51% and 31% more visible buds, respectively, compared with those grown in the GH. Similarly, petunia transplanted at Cornell during week 13 in the HT and HT+RC were 45% and 43% shorter, respectively, than their GH counterparts. The shoot dry mass of dianthus and snapdragon at Purdue was significantly higher when grown in the HT compared with the GH, regardless of transplant week or the use of RC likely because of increased daily light integral (DLI) in the HT environment. There was about a 1-week delay from transplant to first open flower for week 13 dianthus (at Purdue) and petunia (at both locations) when finished in the HT or HT+RC vs. their GH counterparts. Such a delay would be acceptable to growers who want to reduce the use of chemical grow th regulators and heating costs. However, at both locations snapdragon transplanted on week 13 to the HT or HT+RC environments were delayed by 22 to 26 days compared with the GH. A delay of over 3 weeks could interfere with a grower's production schedule, possibly making this crop unsuitable for production in northern latitude HTs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the past two decades, members of the SQUAMOSA-PROMOTER BINDING PROTEIN-LIKE ( SPL ) family of transcription factors, first identified in Antirrhinum majus , have emerged as pivotal regulators of diverse biological processes in plants, including the timing of vegetative and reproductive phase change, leaf development, tillering/branching, plastochron, panicle/tassel architecture, fruit ripening, fertility, and response to stresses. Transcripts of a subset of SPL s are targeted for cleavage and/or translational repression by microRNA156s (miR156s). The levels of miR156s are regulated by both endogenous developmental cues and various external stimuli. Accumulating evidence shows that the regulatory circuit around the miR156/SPL module is highly conserved among phylogenetically distinct plant species, and plays important roles in regulating plant fitness, biomass, and yield. With the expanding knowledge and a mechanistic understanding of their roles and regulatory relationship, we can now harness the miR156/SPL module as a plethora of tools to genetically manipulate crops for optimal parameters in growth and development, and ultimately to maximize yield by intelligent design of crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mutations in the CINCINNATA ( CIN) gene in Antirrhinum majus and its orthologs in Arabidopsis result in crinkly leaves as a result of excess growth towards the leaf margin. CIN homologs code for TCP (TEOSINTE-BRANCHED 1, CYCLOIDEA, PROLIFERATING CELL FACTOR 1 AND 2) transcription factors and are expressed in a broad zone in a growing leaf distal to the proliferation zone where they accelerate cell maturation. Although a few TCP targets are known, the functional basis of CIN-mediated leaf morphogenesis remains unclear., We compared the global transcription profiles of wild-type and the cin mutant of A. majus to identify the targets of CIN. We cloned and studied the direct targets using RNA in situ hybridization, DNA-protein interaction, chromatin immunoprecipitation and reporter gene analysis., Many of the genes involved in the auxin and cytokinin signaling pathways showed altered expression in the cin mutant. Further, we showed that CIN binds to genomic regions and directly promotes the transcription of a cytokinin receptor homolog HISTIDINE KINASE 4 ( Am HK4) and an IAA3/ SHY2 ( INDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID INDUCIBLE 3/SHORT HYPOCOTYL 2) homolog in A. majus., Our results suggest that CIN limits excess cell proliferation and maintains the flatness of the leaf surface by directly modulating the hormone pathways involved in patterning cell proliferation and differentiation during leaf growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Petunia line Mitchell [MP, Petunia axillaris × (P. axillaris × P. hybrida)] and Eustoma grandiflorum (lisianthus) plants were produced containing a transgene for over-expression of the R2R3-MYB transcription factor [TF; ROSEA1 (ROS1)] that up-regulates flavonoid biosynthesis in Antirrhinum majus. The petunia lines were also crossed with previously produced MP lines containing a Zea mays flavonoid-related basic helix-loop-helix TF transgene (LEAF COLOR, LC), which induces strong vegetative pigmentation when these 35S:LC plants are exposed to high-light levels. 35S:ROS1 lisianthus transgenics had limited changes in anthocyanin pigmentation, specifically, precocious pigmentation of flower petals and increased pigmentation of sepals. RNA transcript levels for two anthocyanin biosynthetic genes, chalcone synthase and anthocyanidin synthase, were increased in the 35S:ROS1 lisianthus petals compared to those of control lines. With MP, the 35S:ROS1 calli showed novel red pigmentation in culture, but this was generally not seen in tissue culture plantlets regenerated from the calli or young plants transferred to soil in the greenhouse. Anthocyanin pigmentation was enhanced in the stems of mature 35S:ROS1 MP plants, but the MP white-flower phenotype was not complemented. Progeny from a 35S:ROS1 × 35S:LC cross had novel pigmentation phenotypes that were not present in either parental line or MP. In particular, there was increased pigment in the petal throat region, and the anthers changed from yellow to purple pigmentation. An outdoor field trial was conducted with the 35S:ROS1, 35S:LC, 35S:ROS1 × 35S:LC and control MP lines. Field conditions rapidly induced intense foliage pigmentation in 35S:LC plants, a phenotype not observed in control MP or equivalent 35S:LC plants maintained in a greenhouse. No difference in plant stature, seed germination, or plant survival was observed between transgenic and control plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Harvesting with <2cm celosia heads and no snapdragon open floret extended vase life. [•] Celosia did not tolerate dry or wet storage at 3±1°C, but floral foam had no effect. [•] Snapdragon stems could be dry-stored for 2 weeks with no decrease in vase life. [•] Sucrose (5 or 10%) pulsing for 24h doubled snapdragon but reduced celosia vase life. [•] Snapdragon stems kept continuously in preservatives had 2-fold longer vase life than DI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

NtCOI1, a tobacco orthologue of the Arabidopsis jasmonate co-receptor COI1, was shown to regulate primary carbohydrate metabolism in both reproductive and vegetative organs of Nicotiana tabacum L. cv. TN90.Jasmonate (JA) plays an important role in regulating plant male fertility and secondary metabolism, but its role in regulating primary metabolism remains unclear. The F-box protein CORONATINE INSENSITIVE 1 (COI1) is a critical component of the JA receptor, and mediates JA-signalling by targeting JASMONATE ZIM-domain (JAZ) proteins for proteasomal degradation in response to JA perception. Here, we found that RNA interference-mediated knockdown of NtCOI1 in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L. cv. TN90) recapitulated many previously observed phenotypes in coi1 mutants, including male sterility, JA insensitivity, and loss of floral anthocyanin production. It also affected starch metabolism in the pollen, anther wall, and floral nectary, leading to pollen abortion and loss of floral nectar. Transcript levels of genes encoding starch metabolism enzymes were significantly altered in the pollen, anther wall, and floral nectary of NtCOI1-silenced tobacco. Changes in leaf primary metabolism were also observed in the NtCOI1-silenced tobacco. The expression of NtMYB305, an orthologue of MYB305 previously identified as a flavonoid metabolic regulator in Antirrhinum majus flowers and as a floral-nectar regulator mediating starch synthesis in ornamental tobacco, was extremely downregulated in NtCOI1-silenced tobacco. These findings suggest that NtCOI1 functions upstream of NtMYB305 and plays a fundamental role in coordinating plant primary carbohydrate metabolism and correlative physiological processes. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The gene network that specifies flower shape in Antirrhinum majus (bilateral floral symmetry or zygomorphy) includes two MYB-class genes - RADIALIS ( RAD) and DIVARICATA ( DIV). RAD is involved in establishing the dorsal identity program and its role is to regulate the domain of activity of DIV (the ventral identity program) by restricting it to ventral regions of the flower., Plantago is in the same family as Antirrhinum but has small, radially symmetrical (actinomorphic) flowers derived from a zygomorphic ancestral state. Here we investigate the MYB-class floral symmetry genes and the role they have played in the evolution of derived actinomorphy in Plantago lanceolata., A DIV ortholog ( Pl DIV) but no RAD ortholog was identified in P. lanceolata. Pl DIV is expressed across all petals and stamens later in flower development, which is consistent with the loss of RAD gene function. Pl DIV expression in anther sporogenous tissue also suggests that Pl DIV was co-opted to regulate cell proliferation during the early stages of pollen development., These results indicate that evolution of derived actinomorphy in Plantago involved complete loss of dorsal gene function, resulting in expansion of the domain of expression of the ventral class of floral symmetry genes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Floral bilateral symmetry (zygomorphy) has evolved several times independently in angiosperms from radially symmetrical (actinomorphic) ancestral states. Homologs of the Antirrhinum majus Cycloidea gene (Cyc) have been shown to control floral symmetry in diverse groups in core eudicots. In the basal eudicot family Ranunculaceae, there is a single evolutionary transition from actinomorphy to zygomorphy in the stem lineage of the tribe Delphinieae. We characterized Cyc homologs in 18 genera of Ranunculaceae, including the four genera of Delphinieae, in a sampling that represents the floral morphological diversity of this tribe, and reconstructed the evolutionary history of this gene family in Ranunculaceae. Within each of the two RanaCyL (Ranunculaceae Cycloidea-like) lineages previously identified, an additional duplication possibly predating the emergence of the Delphinieae was found, resulting in up to four gene copies in zygomorphic species. Expression analyses indicate that the RanaCyL paralogs are expressed early in floral buds and that the duration of their expression varies between species and paralog class. At most one RanaCyL paralog was expressed during the late stages of floral development in the actinomorphic species studied whereas all paralogs from the zygomorphic species were expressed, composing a species-specific identity code for perianth organs. The contrasted asymmetric patterns of expression observed in the two zygomorphic species is discussed in relation to their distinct perianth architecture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims Analysis of cellular patterns in plant organs provides information about the orientation of cell divisions and predominant growth directions. Such an approach was employed in the present study in order to characterize growth of the asymmetrical wild-type dorsal petal and the symmetrical dorsalized petal of the backpetals mutant in Antirrhinum majus. The aims were to determine how growth in an initially symmetrical petal primordium leads to the development of mature petals differing in their symmetry, and to determine how specific cellular patterns in the petal epidermis are formed. Methods Cellular patterns in the epidermis in both petal types over consecutive developmental stages were visualized and characterized quantitatively in terms of cell wall orientation and predominant types of four-cell packets. The data obtained were interpreted in terms of principal directions of growth (PDGs). Key Results Both petal types grew predominantly along the proximo-distal axis. Anticlinal cell walls in the epidermis exhibited a characteristic fountain-like pattern that was only slightly modified in time. New cell walls were mostly perpendicular to PDG trajectories, but this alignment could change with wall age. Conclusions The results indicate that the predominant orientation of cell division planes and the fountain-like cellular pattern observed in both petal types may be related to PDGs. The difference in symmetry between the two petal types arises because PDG trajectories in the field of growth rates (growth field) controlling petal growth undergo gradual redefinition. This redefinition probably takes place in both petal types but only in the wild-type does it eventually lead to asymmetry in the growth field. Two scenarios of how redefinition of PDGs may contribute to this asymmetry are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the beginning of the 1990s, a simple genetic model that explained flower development was presented based onArabidopsis thalianaandAntirrhinum majusfloral homeotic mutants. According to this model, which is a milestone in plant development studies, flower development can be explained by three classes of genes (A, B and C), each one controlling the identity of organs in two adjacent whorls. Intriguingly, more than 20 years later, there are still some unanswered questions, in particular regarding the universality of the class A-function genes. Class A genes are well characterised inA. thaliana, but so far no A mutants have been described in other plant species nor inAntirrhinum majus. Here, we retrace the story that led to the proposal of the ABC model focusing on the contribution ofA. majusto this model. Although fewer groups are still usingA. majusas a model system, this plant was a master contributor to our comprehension of the molecular networks controlling flower development. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Antirrhinum majus Rosea1 (Ros1) is an MYB-related transcription factor that induces anthocyanin biosynthesis in plant tissues, and has been shown to be suitable for visual tracking of virus infection in plants. However, activation of anthocyanin biosynthesis has far reaching effects on plant physiology and could consequently have negative effects on viral replication. Therefore, viruses carrying the Ros1 marker might have a low fitness and consequently rapidly lose the marker. To compare the stability of the Ros1 marker, we generated Tobacco etch virus (TEV) based constructs containing either Ros1 or the enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) between the NIb and CP cistrons (TEV-Ros1 and TEV-eGFP, respectively). We measured the within-host competitive fitness of both viruses by direct competitions with a common competitor during infection of Nicotiana tabacum. The fitness of TEV-Ros1 was significantly lower than that of TEV-eGFP, and both recombinant viruses had a significantly lower fitness than the wild-type virus. Nevertheless, after seven weeks of infection in N. tabacum, similar levels of marker gene instability where found for both viruses. Despite lower fitness of the marked virus, Ros1 is therefore a viable alternative marker for tracking viral infection in plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The establishment of meristematic domains with different transcriptional activity is essential for many developmental processes. The asymmetry of the Antirrhinum majus flower is established by transcription factors with an asymmetric pattern of activity. To understand how this asymmetrical pattern is established, we studied the molecular mechanism through which the dorsal MYB protein RADIALIS ( RAD) restricts the activity of the MYB transcription factor DIVARICATA ( DIV) to the ventral region of the flower meristem. We show that RAD competes with DIV for binding with other MYB-like proteins, termed DRIF1 and DRIF2 ( DIV- and- RAD-interacting-factors). DRIF1 and DIV interact to form a protein complex that binds to the DIV- DNA consensus region, suggesting that the DRIFs act as co-regulators of DIV transcriptional activity. In the presence of RAD, the interaction between DRIF1 and DIV bound to DNA is disrupted. Moreover, the DRIFs are sequestered in the cytoplasm by RAD, thus, preventing or reducing the formation of DRIF- DIV heterodimers in the nuclei. Our results suggest that in the dorsal region of the Antirrhinum flower meristem the dorsal protein RAD antagonises the activity of the ventral identity protein DIV in a subcellular competition for a DRIF protein promoting the establishment of the asymmetric pattern of gene activity in the Antirrhinum flower. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transgenic tomato plants accumulating high amounts (70-100 fold) of anthocyanin in the fruit were developed by the fruit specific expression of two transcription factors, Delila and Rosea1 isolated from Antirrhinum majus. The transgenic tomato plants were identical to the control plants, except for the accumulation of high levels of anthocyanin pigments throughout the fruit during maturity, thus giving the fruit a purplish colour. The total carotenoids, including lycopene levels were unaffected in the anthocyanin-rich fruits, while its antioxidant capacity was elevated. The gene expression analysis confirmed the elevated expression of the downstream genes of the anthocyanin pathway due to the expression of the transcription factors and the expression levels coincided with the fruit ripening stages, highest expression occurring during the breaker stage. Anthocyanin-rich tomato fruit is important in view of the protective function of these compounds on consumption against a number of lifestyle-related diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Phenolic acids are universally distributed in plant species, where they participate in numerous bioactivities. However, their low abundance in Salvia miltiorrhiza is a perplexing problem. We examined the heterologous expression of two transcription factors, Delila (DEL) and Rosea1 (ROS1), from Antirrhinum majus in genetically modified S. miltiorrhiza. Productions of rosmarinic acid (RA) and salvianolic acid B (Sal B) were significantly elevated during normal growth stages. Contents of other phenylpropanoid metabolites were enhanced and antioxidant activity was markedly stronger. Both SmCHS and SmRAS were stimulated by co-expression of DEL and ROS1. Because levels of phenylpropanoid metabolites were increased while both were co-expressed in S. miltiorrhiza, we believe that this will be a useful strategy for improving the contents of phenolic acids (especially RA and Sal B) in this species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Characteristics of accumulation and tolerance of lead (Pb) in Quamolit pennata, Antirrhinum majus L. and Celosia cristata pyramidalis were investigated to identify Pb-accumulating plants. In this study, pot culture experiment was conducted to assess whether these plants are Pb-hyperaccumulators or accumulators. The results indicated that the Pb enrichment factor (concentration in plant/soil) and Pb translocation factor (concentration in shoot/root) of these plants were principally <1 in pot culture and concentration gradient experiments. However, the Pb concentration in Celosia cristata pyramidalis shoots was higher than 1000 mg kg−1, the threshold concentration for a Pb-hyperaccumulator. Shoot biomass of Celosia cristata pyramidalis had no significantly (p < 0.05) variation compared to the control. Based on these results, only Celosia cristata pyramidalis could be identified as a Pb-accumulator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Lipid classes, fatty acids, phytosterols and tocopherols composition of snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus) seed oil were determined. A. majus seeds are a good source of oil (12.3%). The amounts of neutral lipids in the oil were the highest, followed by glycolipids and phospholipids. Linoleic and oleic accounted for 88% of the total fatty acids. Snapdragon seed oil is characterized by a relatively high amount of phytosterols, wherein the sterol marker was β-sitosterol. All tocopherol isomers were present, wherein γ-tocopherol constituted 81% of the total tocopherol content followed be β-tocopherol (ca. 14.3%). The radical scavenging activity (RSA) toward 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals and galvinoxyl radicals of A. majus oil were higher than those of extra virgin olive oil. The diverse potential uses of A. majus oil may make this plant into significant industrial importance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Using a species distribution model, we reconstructed the environmental niches of Antirrhinum majus pseudomajus and Antirrhinum majus striatum, two closely related species with parapatric distributions. We tested whether retention of ancestral environmental niche (i.e. niche conservatism) or adaptation to different ecological conditions (i.e. niche divergence) could explain the maintenance of their non-overlapping geographic ranges. We found that the environmental niche of A. m. pseudomajus is almost twice as large as that of A. m. striatum, with substantial overlap indicating that A. m. pseudomajus and A. m. striatum should co-occur frequently within the geographic range of A. m. striatum. By analysing contact zones where both subspecies are geographically close, we found that the presence of one subspecies instead of the other was significantly influenced by particular combinations of climatic factors. Since independent genetic evidence indicates that the two subspecies have experienced phases of range overlap at or near contact zones over the course of their evolutionary history, we propose that ecological niche displacement might be an important factor in explaining the absence of current range overlap between A. majus subspecies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transcriptional network topology of B function in Antirrhinum, required for petal and stamen development, is thought to rely on initial activation of transcription of DEFICIENS ( DEF) and GLOBOSA ( GLO), followed by a positive autoregulatory loop maintaining gene expression levels. Here, we show that the mutant compacta ( co), whose vegetative growth and petal size are affected, plays a role in B function. Late events in petal morphogenesis such as development of conical cell area and scent emissions were reduced in co and def nicotianoides ( def nic), and absent in co def nic double mutants, suggesting a role for CO in petal identity. Expression of DEF was down-regulated in co but surprisingly GLO was not affected. We investigated the levels of DEF and GLO at late stages of petal development in the co, def nic and glo-1 mutants, and established a reliable transformation protocol that yielded RNAi-DEF lines. We show that the threshold levels of DEF or GLO required to obtain petal tissue are approximately 11% of wild-type. The relationship between DEF and GLO transcripts is not equal or constant and changes during development. Furthermore, down-regulation of DEF or GLO does not cause parallel down-regulation of the partner. Our results demonstrate that, at late stages of petal development, the B function transcriptional network topology is not based on positive autoregulation, and has additional components of transcriptional maintenance. Our results suggest changes in network topology that may allow changes in protein complexes that would explain the fact that not all petal traits appear early in development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Edible fruits are inexpensive biofactories for human health-promoting molecules that can be ingested as crude extracts or partially purified formulations. We show here the production of a model human antibody for passive protection against the enteric pathogen rotavirus in transgenically labelled tomato fruits. Transgenic tomato plants expressing a recombinant human immunoglobulin A (hIgA_2A1) selected against the VP8* peptide of rotavirus SA11 strain were obtained. The amount of hIgA_2A1 protein reached 3.6 ± 0.8% of the total soluble protein in the fruit of the transformed plants. Minimally processed fruit-derived products suitable for oral intake showed anti-VP8* binding activity and strongly inhibited virus infection in an in vitro virus neutralization assay. In order to make tomatoes expressing hIgA_2A1 easily distinguishable from wild-type tomatoes, lines expressing hIgA_2A1 transgenes were sexually crossed with a transgenic tomato line expressing the genes encoding Antirrhinum majus Rosea1 and Delila transcription factors, which confer purple colour to the fruit. Consequently, transgenically labelled purple tomato fruits expressing hIgA_2A1 have been developed. The resulting purple-coloured extracts from these fruits contain high levels of recombinant anti-rotavirus neutralizing human IgA in combination with increased amounts of health-promoting anthocyanins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transposons are abundant components of eukaryotic genomes, and play important role in genome evolution. The knowledge about these elements should contribute to the understanding of their impact on the host genomes. The hAT transposon superfamily is one of the best characterized superfamilies in diverse organisms, nevertheless, a detailed study of these elements was never carried in sugarcane. To address this question we analyzed 32 cDNAs similar to that of hAT superfamily of transposons previously identified in the sugarcane transcriptome. Our results revealed that these hAT-like transposases cluster in one highly homogeneous and other more heterogeneous lineage. We present evidences that support the hypothesis that the highly homogeneous group is a domesticated transposase while the remainder of the lineages are composed of transposon units. The first is common to grasses, clusters significantly with domesticated transposases from Arabidopsis, rice and sorghum and is expressed in different tissues of two sugarcane cultivars analyzed. In contrast, the more heterogeneous group represents at least two transposon lineages. We recovered five genomic versions of one lineage, characterizing a novel transposon family with conserved DDE motif, named SChAT. These results indicate the presence of at least three distinct lineages of hAT-like transposase paralogues in sugarcane genome, including a novel transposon family described in Saccharum and a domesticated transposase. Taken together, these findings permit to follow the diversification of some hAT transposase paralogues in sugarcane, aggregating knowledge about the co-evolution of transposons and their host genomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attractive petals are an integral component of animal-pollinated flowers and in many flowering plant species are restricted to the second floral whorl. Interestingly, multiple times during angiosperm evolution, petaloid characteristics have expanded to adjacent floral whorls or to extra-floral organs. Here, we investigate developmental characteristics of petaloid sepals in Rhodochiton atrosanguineum, a close relative of the model species Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon). We undertook this in two ways, first using scanning electron microscopy we investigate the micromorphology of petals and sepals, followed by expression studies of genes usually responsible for the formation of petaloid structures. From our data, we conclude that R. atrosanguineum petaloid sepals lack micromorphological characteristics of petals and that petaloid sepals did not evolve through regulatory evolution of B-class MADS box genes, which have been shown to specify second whorl petal identity in a number of model flowering plant species including snapdragon. These data, in conjunction with other studies, suggests multiple convergent pathways for the evolution of showy sepals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on non-chlorophyll pigment, betalain production in anthocyanin producing plant species. It states that betalains are divided into betaxanthins and betacyanins, which produce yellow to orange or violet colors, respectively. It mentions that biolistic introduction of DNA constructs for transient overexpression of two different dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) dioxygenases (DODs), and feeding of DOD substrate (L-DOPA), was sufficient to induce betalain production .