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The changing skill needs being experienced by small European firms because of increasing internationalization were examined in a survey of owners/managers and employees of 85 small manufacturing businesses in Greece, Spain, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Austria, and the United Kingdom and case studies of an additional 16 businesses that have been particularly successful in becoming internationalized. The study confirmed that export and other cross-border activities constitute the first step toward internationalization and that, in most cases, it also constitutes natural progress in business growth or even survival. The main difficulties encountered in the small firms' international operations were access to suitable contacts abroad, market access, and market information. Having employees with two to four of the following key competencies was deemed key to successful internationalization: (1) foreign language skills; (2) knowledge of other markets/tastes; (3) communication skills; (4) information technology-based competencies; (5) negotiation skills; and (6) a capacity to work with international information systems and databases. The following are among the types of training services and technical support needed by small firms engaged in international business: group training programs; workshops on small exporters' best practices; and intensive foreign language courses. The study institutions' addresses are appended. (Contains 41 tables.) (MN)

The General Accounting Office (GAO) evaluated the coordination of the export training offered to small businesses by the U.S. Department of Commerce and U.S. Small Business Administration through the U.S. Export Assistance Centers (USEACs). GAO staff visited 10 of the 19 USEACs. The agencies' training organizers or presenters were interviewed, agency documents were reviewed, and minority and women participants in the training programs were identified and interviewed along with some program participants identified by the USEACs. The Department of Commerce did not coordinate closely with the SBA when introducing its export-training program. As a result, Commerce and the SBA provided separate and duplicative training programs for potential business exporters, although the Commerce program is aimed at serving minority- and women-owned firms. Three of the 10 USEACs had combined both programs into a single export program. Evaluation of the various programs was impeded by the fact that neither Commerce nor the SBA systematically collected outcome data for their export training programs. The GAO recommended that the Trade Promotion Coordinating Committee eliminate duplication of export training services by determining the best way to combine the SBA and Commerce export-training programs delivered by USEACs. (Comments from the Department of Commerce are appended.) (MN)

This two-part report explains the economic importance of international trade to the Canadian economy and reviews responses taken by Ontario's Confederation College to the threats and opportunities posed by economic globalization. The first part traces Canada's economic evolution over the past 50 years; summarizes post-World War II global economic growth; discusses the challenges and opportunities presented by Canada's role in the new global economy; explains Canada's need to focus on trade; and identifies how community colleges can assist at the local, regional, and national level to respond to the global economic challenge. The second part of the report presents information on Confederation College (northwestern Ontario) and its service area and explains how the college globalized its curriculum in response to economic changes, such as a 1990 recession, and growing government support for export. This section also details the following elements of the college's response to the new global economy: (1) the creation of awareness and understanding of export-import, international issues, and global economic developments; (2) the development of related education and training programs; (3) the establishment of a library of resources; (4) the development of international linkages; (5) international projects; (6) international business development; and (7) support of international initiatives of other economic stakeholders, such as local mayors or national business associations. Finally, a summary of benefits from the college's international activities is provided. (TGI)

This report indicates that a proper accounting for the size of the arts industry should be adjusted to incorporate "unmeasured" industry "revenues" stemming from contributions of time and commodities as well as the willingness of the public to pay more in taxes to support the arts. The contributions of the arts industry will be understated if significant non-economic benefits are omitted. Such contributions include the arts as a kind of "basic research" leading ultimately to economically successful "applied" cultural products such as those that have captured the imagination of the entire world through mass media presentation. They also include the types of community benefits that have led many corporations to support the arts as a way of attracting and keeping a higher quality workforce and making marketing inroads with targeted consumer communities. The so-called "secondary" economic benefits of the arts industry may well exceed even the substantial benefits more typically stemming from their role as a generator of jobs and spending in the economy. (MM)

In this study, the U.S. arts industry is conceptually defined and measured with respect to statistical size. The contribution and significance of the arts industry to the economy is then assessed within the context of national competitiveness and the emerging knowledge economy. Study findings indicate that the arts industry contributes between 5% and 10% of the Gross National Product. The arts industry also accounts for between 3% and 5% of all U.S. exports and for between 5% and 10% of all imports. Relative to the total U.S. trade deficit the arts industry contributes between 13% and 45% of the deficit. In addition, the concept of competitiveness has shifted towards a knowledge-based economy and been extended to embrace the 'soft side' that includes attitudes, education, motivation, and values, the arts are seen as one of the three principal domains of knowledge upon which national competitiveness depends. The arts industry may therefore be seen as a very important contributor to the U.S. economy. (MM)

The impact of international trade on employment and job loss in the Unites States was analyzed. Evidence from earlier studies was reviewed, and the following topics were examined: changes in the U.S. manufacturing industry in 1975-1995; labor market responses to changes in trade and import competition; methods of measuring the link between changes in industry employment and changes in trade flows; and job displacement and foreign competition. Overall, the data on industry employment proved consistent with arguments that increasing imports reduce employment and increasing exports (and domestic demand) enhance employment. However, the argument that import restrictions can be used to protect jobs was shown to be flawed. The analysis demonstrated that reducing import share will not boost employment or reduce job displacement by much and that consumers will bear the cost through higher prices. The most direct way of protecting workers was said to be through domestic adjustment assistance policy--a policy approach that has long had considerable support in the domestic policies of freer trade. (Thirty-four tables/figures are included. Appendixes discuss the following topics: measures of trade volumes and import prices; use of the Current Population Survey to measure industry employment and job loss; and construction of the survey instruments. The bibliography lists 96 references.) (MN)

This report of the Seventh Special Session at the Conference of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) presents an account of the Forum on World Economic Order. Its purpose is to gain public awareness of the issues debated. The core of this report is the unique exchange of over 50 opinions which provide a compendium of ideas and judgments in the field of economic and social development and international cooperation. Issues discussed in the Forum were (1) human values in the economic order, (2) trade and commodity problems, (3) finance and monetary problems, (4) science and technology, (5) employment and industrialization, (6) food and marine resources, (7) internal development strategies, (8) global structures, and (9) shaping the future. For each issue, the report contains summaries of the experiences and wisdom of the participants, notes on the background of each issue, action taken by the Special Session, and information on where the issues will be debated next. General concerns expressed by participants focused on how to deal with the poorest sectors of the developing world and with future problems of population and environment. In conclusion, the report provides a discussion of the mood of the Special Session, review of NGO action and their future role, calendar of events, Resolution of the Special Session, a bibliography, and a list of abbreviations and terms. (ND)

In order to determine rural land use in the Monongahela River Basin, 11,528 landowners, controlling 40 percent of 10 contiguous counties in north-central West Virginia and constituting 19 percent of the rural population, were surveyed. Data derived from 892 questionnaire responses were analyzed in terms of past, present, and future land use; land valuation; market trends; tenure; and prospects for potential conflicts among competing rural land uses. Specifically, data encompassed: (1) population statistics, 1950, 1960, 1970; (2) export industries; (3) rural land use in 1972 (acreage distribution, land values, mineral resources, idle farmland, farm income, agricultural crops, crop acreages, livestock income); (4) changes in land use, 1962-72; (5) anticipated land use changes, 1982; (6) land use problems (farm operation, water sources, and disturbed lands). Results indicated rural landowners: (1) owned less than 100 acres; (2) large tracts were few, averaging 177.9 acres; (3) beef cattle sales comprised the major source of farm income, but most owners earned greater incomes off the farm; (4) large owners of timber and mineral rights were notably absent from the survey population; (5) 50 percent of those surveyed had coal reserves, 80 percent had coal rights, and 13 percent indicated willingness to sell; (6) farmland will decrease and farms will increase in size; (7) livestock production will be the major determinant of the surveyed land. (JC)

Analysts of U.S.-Soviet balance of power usually focus on relative military strength. But other factors determine a country's overall power and influence. Among the most basic is a country's capacity to feed its people. By this measure the Soviet Union appears to be in deep trouble. Massive spending has increased Soviet military strength in recent years, but the country has become weaker agriculturally. While the two superpowers now appear roughly equal in military strength, the advantage in agriculture has shifted dramatically toward the United States. The U.S. exportable food surplus is climbing, while Soviet dependence on food imports is growing. The dramatic shift in the agricultural balance of power between the two countries has been decades in the making, but contrasting food surpluses/deficits have been highly visible only in the last decade or so. As deterioration of Soviet agriculture continues, the need to import food will become even greater. The relationship between grain flow from the United States to the Soviet Union constitutes a new economic tie between the two countries, one that could eventually transform their political relations as well. (JN)

The conclusion of this study of 79 developing countries was that forgiving some of the indebtedness of developing countries may stimulate mutually beneficial trade among all nations. the international debt-repayment problems of Poland in 1981 and was followed by problems in Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina in 1982. This crisis has proven to be a more serious threat to the world economy than had been anticipated and has resulted in an intractable constraint on international trade and development. In coping with repayment difficulties, developing countries reduced domestic expenditures, thereby reducing investment in industries that could have produced export merchandise. Developing countries also reduced imports, thus diminishing export markets for developed countries. This situation caused incomes in developed countries to stagnate, further depressing demand for imported goods and services of developing countries. Thus, the world marketplace shrank. United States agriculture has been particularly hurt by the debt crisis. The rescheduling of payments only superficially improved the situation. Developed countries and their lending institutions may find that the benefits of forgiving some portion of the debts outweigh the costs that will result. Charts and graphs are included to illustrate world trade and world debt. Appendixes include charts categorizing countries according to income and debt. (SM)

Emphasizing that books are keys to cultural development, catalysts to trade, and unparalleled (but "neglected") ambassadors of American culture, this report points out the need for a new international outlook on the part of the entire United States publishing community. The report calls for a renewed cooperative approach, which would bring disparate parts of the U.S. book community together with a common cause, to help fulfill the immediate educational and economic needs of Third World countries. Various chapters of the report discuss the following: (1) the sponsorship, purpose, scope, and method of the study; (2) the faltering state of U.S. book exports; (3) the influence of multinational publishing; (4) the impact of English-language publishing in continental Europe; (5) previous major U.S. book distribution assistance programs; (6) current U.S. assistance programs; (7) assistance programs of other countries; (8) deterrents to U.S. book exporting; (9) responsibility for U.S. books abroad; and (10) a suggested plan for the future Appendixes include the United Nations roster of developing countries, book types exported by the United States, and statistics of four book distribution programs. (HTH)

United States exports may not necessarily increase when the dollar falls on the world market. Conventional thinking is that a weaker dollar means more demand for U.S. products because they become less expensive than goods from countries with stronger currencies. However, developing countries whose export revenues are denominated in the weakening dollar can lose income because the weaker dollars they earn on their exported goods buy less on the world market. When the dollar slumps, therefore, U.S. farm product sales to some developing countries may also drop. An analysis of the effects of changes in currency exchange rates from 1980 to early 1987 on the capacity of 14 developing countries to buy imports showed that 7 of the 14 have seen a deterioration in import-buying power because of the dollar's drop since 1985. Four developing countries have shown modest improvements. The three top U.S. farm markets among the 14 developing countries--Korea, Taiwan, and Mexico--have not been affected by recent currency fluctuations. (Author/KC)

Because of shifts in consumer tastes and preferences, demographics, technology, government regulation, and the expanding interdependence of world markets, the United States fruit and vegetable processing industries must operate in a constantly changing and uncertain economic environment. U.S. per capita use of processed fruits and vegetables is growing, thanks to improved distribution and availability, introduction of new product forms, better storage facilities, increased advertising and promotion, and increasing health consciousness among Americans. Increases in income will likely lead to increased purchases of fresh vegetables (versus processed) but will likely result in more use of processed fruit products. Changes in production have largely accompanied changes in consumer demand, and the use of forward contracts to guarantee supply has further shifted control from the food production to the food processing subsector. Increasing consumer pressures have led to more strenuous enforcement of such government regulations as labeling laws, pesticide laws, and grading standards. The growing internationalization of the U.S. fruit and vegetable processing industries has increased the importance of uncertain macroeconomic and trade policies for these industries. (More than half of this document consists of statistical tables on U.S. fruit and vegetable production, use, and export.) (MN)

For a quarter of a century, the United States has been gradually losing market share in the European Community, which accounts for about one-fifth of world trade. The European Community consumes about one-fourth of United States exports, but this represents only about eight percent of its total imports. Three of the barriers contributing to further decline in trade include trade protectionism on both sides of the Atlantic, concerns for cultural sovereignty, and the economic situation created by the recent enlargement of the European Community to include Spain and Portugal. The challenge is for United States marketers to overcome the obstacles and increase exports to this market, and this may be accomplished through awareness and education. (MSE)

This report describes the U.S. soybean industry from producers to consumers and provides a single source of economic and statistical information on soybeans. Highlights are as follows: U.S. soybean production has increased sevenfold since 1950, making soybeans the second highest valued crop after corn. Soybean production has risen in response to increasing world demand for soybeans and their derivative products, oil and meal. The U.S. share of the world export market has ranged from 65 to 80 percent during the 1980s. Soybean oil accounts for 75 percent of the fats and oils used in edible oil products. Soybean meal is the major high-protein feed for livestock in the United States. U.S. farmers have increased their soybean plantings from 15.6 million acres in 1950 to 60.4 million acres in 1986. Production increased from 299.2 million to nearly 2 billion bushels, with the average yield per acre increasing from 21.6 to 33.3 bushels. About 55 percent of the U.S soybean crop is crushed domestically, with most of the rest exported as beans. Soybean prices increased moderately through the 1960s and then jumped sharply in the 1970s, reflecting crop failures abroad and increasing world demand for protein feeds. Since the 1970s, soybean prices have fluctuated widely. Government price supports have been available for soybeans every year since 1941 except for 1975, with the season average price exceeding the price support level for most years. The United States remains the world's leading producer and exporter of soybeans; however, its share of world production has dropped from 74 percent in 1967-69 to 56 percent during 1984-86. (MN)

Major social and economic trends in American and California life that will affect California's colleges and universities during the next 15 years are identified. Characteristics of the information-based economy are examined, along with projections concerning the 40 fastest-growing jobs between 1982 and 1995. College and university research has provided the scientific bases for technological advancement and improvements in communications, transportation, and production. Attention is directed to: private funding of higher education, continued economic growth in the United States, the federal deficit, balancing imports and exports, increased conservation of resources, present and projected sources of energy, and demographic and social trends. Social trends in the country include increasingly open lifestyles, less permanent family associations, greater personal anxiety, and a desire for instant gratification. The effects of these trends and demographic changes on postsecondary education include greater vocationalism and corporate involvement, increased emphasis on business and technology, a de-emphasis on the liberal arts and humanities, the relative growth of the public sector, and a larger number of transient students taking part-time programs. (SW)