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3D scanning and printing technologies are quickly evolving and offer great potential for use in gross anatomical education. The use of human body donors to create digital scans and 3D printed models raises ethical concerns about donor informed consent, potential commodification, and access to and storage of potentially identifiable anatomical reproductions. This paper reviews available literature describing ethical implications for the application of these emerging technologies, existing published best practices for managing and sharing 2D imaging, and current adherence to these best practices by academic body donation programs. We conclude that informed consent is paramount for all uses of human donor and human donor-derived materials and that currently there is considerable diversity in adherence to established best practices for the management and sharing of 3D digital content derived from human donors. We propose a new and simplified framework for categorizing donor-derived teaching materials and the corresponding level of consent required for digital sharing. This framework proposes an equivalent minimum level of specific consent for human donor and human donor-derived materials relative to generalized, nonidentical teaching materials (i.e., artificial plastic models). Likewise, we propose that the collective path forward should involve the creation of a centralized, secure repository for digital human donor 3D content as a mechanism for accumulating, regulating, and controlling the distribution of properly consented human donor-derived 3D digital content that will also increase the availability of ethically created human-derived teaching materials while discouraging commodification.

Cultural heritage is no longer something that can only be experienced in a museum exhibition. Digital tools have facilitated the distribution of material relating to artefacts, both in its representation and in presenting its context. This paper describes how digital modelling techniques can be synthesised with 3D scanning to digitally restore artefacts and create authentic replicas of their original states. The digital artefacts can then be used to assist the process of interpreting these artefacts in diverse forms, both in the museum and outside the museum. The study looks at Pictish sculpture as a case-study, restoring 3D models of two stones, and creating varying opportunities for their interpretation. As part of this study, new interactive tools, a virtual reality environment, and a virtual tour are built to assist immersive interpretation of the Pictish sculpture. The application of these digitised objects serves as an opportunity for informal learning. These applications were evaluated during a drop-in session. Findings show that all participants enjoyed the immersive mode of learning with 89% also showing a willingness to learn more about the topic.

It has been discovered that incorporating technology into geometry instruction improves students' abilities and attitudes. GeoGebra Software is effective at motivating teachers to use technology as a supplement to enhance students' mathematical learning potential. The current study sought to ascertain the effects of GeoGebra software on secondary school students' performance as well as teachers' and students' attitudes toward 3-dimensional geometry. A sample of 84 Senior Five students in upper secondary school from Kicukiro and Musanze District was chosen purposively. The selected sample was divided into two groups for the quasi-experimental design, with the control group having 44 students and the experimental group having 40 students. Additionally, two teachers were chosen to involve in the study. Students in the experimental group used GeoGebra software to study 3D geometry, whereas students in the control group received traditional geometry instruction. The data was collected quantitatively, with both groups taking pre-and post-tests. The obtained data were analyzed using SPSS v.25. The results revealed a statistically significant difference in students' performance between the groups in favour of the experimental group. Furthermore, both teachers' and students' attitudes were improved. These findings support GeoGebra's efficacy in increasing student achievement as well as teachers' and students' attitudes toward 3-D geometry. However, there was no statistically significant difference in attitudes between male and female students, according to the study. Therefore, we advise adding GeoGebra to mathematics curricula across all grade levels in Rwanda, with a focus on geometry.

Courses at the postsecondary level continue to rely heavily on visual material that is accessible only to fully or partially sighted students. Tactile graphics work for many pedagogical purposes, but in some cases are insufficient; other information and concepts may be better conveyed through haptic exploration of 3D printed objects. However, there is a dearth of 3D-printable open educational resources for college-level content. To address this need while simultaneously teaching students about accessibility and universal design, we designed and taught an experimental course in which students (a) learned about disability in general and blindness in particular (including history and advocacy); (b) explored technology used by people with visual impairment; (c) heard from many blind voices, including guest experts and community members; (d) studied universal design; and (e) designed 3D-printable educational tactile models in collaboration with blind community members. By the end, students demonstrated significantly less bias and more positive attitudes about blindness and people with visual impairment, and were more confident with accessibility, universal design, and assistive technology. We believe this course can serve as a model for similar courses elsewhere as a strategy to teach students from any major about disability, accessibility, and universal design.

This paper proposes to use depth perception to represent raters' decision in holistic evaluation of ESL essays, as an alternative medium to conventional form of numerical scores. The researchers verified the new method's accuracy and inter/intra-rater reliability by inviting 24 ESL teachers to perform different representations when rating 60 essays written by Chinese ESL learners. During numerical representation, the raters expressed their evaluation in the form of numbers, while with the DP-based method, the raters expressed their evaluation by marking distances with nail tags on a wood ruler with hidden scale marks. Then the researchers translated the distance results into numbers and compared the accuracy and inter/intra-rater consistency of the two approaches by referring to these essays' criteria scores from eight expert raters. The results showed that DP-based method could improve raters' performance, producing more similar results to experts' scores, with higher consistency both among different raters and within the same individual rater.

The 3D stereoscopic technique consists in providing the illusional perception of depth of a given object using two different images mimicking how the right and left eyes capture the object. Both images are slightly different and when overlapped gives a three-dimensional (3D) experience. Considering the limitations for establishing surgical laboratories and dissections courses in some educational institutions, techniques such as stereoscopy and photogrammetry seem to play an important role in neuroanatomy and neurosurgical education. The aim of this study was to describe how to combine and set up realistic models acquired with photogrammetry scans in 3D stereoscopic projections. Three donors, one dry skull, embalmed brain and head, were scanned using photogrammetry. The software used for displaying the final realistic 3D models (Blender, Amsterdam, the Netherlands) is a free software and allows stereoscopic projection without compromising the interactivity of each model. By default, the model was exported and immediately displayed as a red cyan 3D mode. The 3D projector used in the manuscript required a side-by-side 3D mode which was set up with simple commands on the software. The final stereoscopy projection offered depth perception and a visualization in 360° of each donor; this perception was noted especially when visualizing donors with different cavities and fossae. The combination of 3D techniques is of paramount importance for neuroanatomy education. Stereoscopic projections could provide a valuable tool for neuroanatomy instruction directed at clinical trainees and could be especially useful when access to laboratory-based learning is limited.

This study examines learner experiences in the Museum of Instructional Design (MID), a 3D Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) developed using Mozilla Spoke and Hubs, focusing on Instructional Design and Technology (IDT) education. The MID utilizes a museum theme as a fundamental design element and allows learners to interact, converse, and develop exhibits to represent the IDT field. Leveraging a multi-phase, multi-method approach, we analyzed the usability and learner experiences within the MID, gathering data via expert evaluations and student interviews. The results highlight the engaging and immersive nature of the MID, while also addressing the technical challenges and varying levels of comfort with technology among learners. The study further proposes several recommendations for course design in 3D immersive environments, underscoring the importance of learner autonomy, clear expectations, tiered challenges, and responsive instruction. The implications of these findings emphasize the potential of 3D VLEs in transforming IDT education and other fields.

Descriptive and functional anatomy is one of the most important sciences for kinesiology students. Anatomy learning requires spatial and motor imagery abilities. Learning anatomy is complex when teaching methods and instructional tools do not appropriately develop spatial and motor imagery abilities. Recent technological developments such as three-dimensional (3D) digital tools allow to overcome those difficulties, especially when 3D tools require strong interactions with the learners. Besides interactive digital tools, embodied learning or learning in motion is an effective method for a wide variety of sciences including anatomy. The aim of this study was to explore the impact of combining movement execution with 3D animation visualization on anatomy learning in a real classroom teaching context. To do so, the results of two groups of kinesiology students during three official assessments were compared. The experimental group (n = 60) learned functional anatomy by combining movement execution with traditional knowledge acquisition (e.g., 3D animations visualization, problem-based learning exercises). The control group (n = 61) had the same material but did not execute the movements during problem-solving exercises. Although no differences were found between both groups on early and mid-semester examinations, significant difference appeared at the end of the semester with an advantage for the experimental group. This exploratory study suggests that embodied learning is beneficial in improving functional anatomy learning. Therefore, it would be interesting to integrate such type of pedagogical approach within the kinesiology curriculum.

Binocular disparity provides one of the important depth cues within stereoscopic three-dimensional (3D) visualization technology. However, there is limited research on its effect on learning within a 3D augmented reality (AR) environment. This study evaluated the effect of binocular disparity on the acquisition of anatomical knowledge and perceived cognitive load in relation to visual-spatial abilities. In a double-center randomized controlled trial, first-year (bio)medical undergraduates studied lower extremity anatomy in an interactive 3D AR environment either with a stereoscopic 3D view (n = 32) or monoscopic 3D view (n = 34). Visual-spatial abilities were tested with a mental rotation test. Anatomical knowledge was assessed by a validated 30-item written test and 30-item specimen test. Cognitive load was measured by the NASA-TLX questionnaire. Students in the stereoscopic 3D and monoscopic 3D groups performed equally well in terms of percentage correct answers (written test: 47.9 ± 15.8 vs. 49.1 ± 18.3; P = 0.635; specimen test: 43.0 ± 17.9 vs. 46.3 ± 15.1; P = 0.429), and perceived cognitive load scores (6.2 ± 1.0 vs. 6.2 ± 1.3; P = 0.992). Regardless of intervention, visual-spatial abilities were positively associated with the specimen test scores ([eta squared] = 0.13, P = 0.003), perceived representativeness of the anatomy test questions (P = 0.010) and subjective improvement in anatomy knowledge (P < 0.001). In conclusion, binocular disparity does not improve learning anatomy. Motion parallax should be considered as another important depth cue that contributes to depth perception during learning in a stereoscopic 3D AR environment.

The authors introduce the readers to a project that highlights digital heritage in early childhood. The highlighted teachers partnered with an anthropologically-trained archaeologist who utilizes advanced digital technologies to enhance public understanding of cultural heritage. This collaboration emphasized social studies and reinforced archaeology as the scientific study of prehistory and history through excavation and artifact analysis.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of applications created using a web-based 3D design environment on the spatial visualisation and mental rotation abilities of secondary school students. A total of 63 school students from the sixth grade participated in the study. The researchers applied a mixed research method including both quantitative and qualitative measures. The Spatial Visualisation Test, Mental Rotation Test, and Santa Barbara Solids Test, which concurrently measure spatial orientation and spatial relations, were used as tools to measure the different components of spatial ability prior to and after the treatment application. Following the treatment, a focus group interview using structured questions was conducted. A statistically significant difference showed an increase in all three test scores of the students; also, the students stated that they were satisfied with being able to design and create something new.

Whilst spatial reasoning skills have been found to predict mathematical achievement, little is known about how primary (elementary) students' conceptual understanding of three-dimensional objects develops. In this article, we report a qualitative study and the impact of rich learning experiences on 48 Years 3-6 students' geometric reasoning relating to prisms. A one-to-one task-based interview, refined by the researchers, was used to assess student learning. Coding and data analysis were informed by our previous research. The findings reveal noticeable shifts in students' knowledge of and reasoning about prisms, their ability to construct and describe prisms with geometric language, and their visualisation and spatial structuring skills. The implications of these findings highlight the importance of teachers' choice of tasks that require students to compose and decompose three-dimensional (3D) objects; compare 3D objects through physical and mental transformations; take different perspectives; and visualise and reason geometrically.

This study aims to examine the situational flow experiences of students creating 3D designs in 3D multi-user virtual environments. This time series quasi-experimental study included 40 volunteer junior students who studied at the Computer Education and Instructional Technology department and had taken the elective course of "Instructional Design". The participants in the role of a designer created 3D designs in the OpenSimulator application throughout the process. They worked in groups to solve authentic problems. At the end of each session, the students were applied a flow experience scale individually. As a result of the study, it was concluded that the participants' flow experience did not differ by gender and overall grade point average. Autotelic activity and disappearance of self-consciousness were the highest components of flow experience indicating that the designers felt immersed in the 3D design activities throughout the 15-week implementation process. Considering flow experience by weeks, it was found that conveying theoretical information to the students diminished their flow experience owing to lack of the concentration, control and feedback components, whereas giving feedback after letting them present what they worked on fostered their flow experience by increasing the clear goals and immediate feedback components. The results highlighted the importance of flow experience in design education.

Young children increasingly interact with technological devices, either as a form of entertainment or for educational purposes. This research sought to investigate the early symbolic understanding of an interactive, three-dimensional digital image presented on a tablet. Two studies were designed in which the children had to use the image as a source of information to solve a search task. The first study investigated the performance of children aged 30 and 36 months. We found that the children symbolically understood the image at 36 months, but not at 30. The second study investigated the impact of manipulation and instruction on the performance of 36-month-old children. The results showed that the manipulation of the image negatively impacted the understanding of it as a symbol, regardless of the instruction received. The results are interpreted in terms of the impact of manipulation, instruction and the three-dimensionality of the object on understanding it as a symbol. Possible implications in education are also discussed.

A recirculating water vacuum pump was constructed from inexpensive materials. The recirculating water vacuum pump has a smaller footprint compared to many commercial models and features a novel, 3D-printed water aspirator pump that also functions with a standard laboratory faucet connection. The performances of both the recirculating water vacuum pump and (faucet) water aspirator pump are comparable to commercial models. The total cost of the recirculating water vacuum pump is approximately $44, excluding the cost of a 3D printer and filament.

This research focused on first-year university students' visuospatial cognition in terms of producing three-dimensional (3D) representations of objects from two-dimensional (2D) views. The research was important since students often had difficulty with 2D to 3D transition activities. A synthesis from the literature established a 2D to 3D conceptual framework for an effective 2D to 3D transition. In essence, the 2D to 3D conceptual framework encompassed encode, integrate and construct as the principle facets in 2D to 3D visuospatial cognition. Students in this study were pre-service teachers enrolled for an engineering graphics module at a university in KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. The study was grounded on the generally accepted understanding that the ability to produce 3D images of an object from its 2D views is related to visuospatial skills. In the context of this study, visuospatial skills were viewed from the perspective of mentally visualising 3D objects from their underlying 2D views. The study followed a qualitative design via think-aloud protocol tasks and document analysis. A sample of five students was purposively selected from a population of 100 engineering graphics students. Findings revealed that students with superior spatial imagery ability achieved better success than those who relied on an object imagery process. Furthermore, findings disclosed that students who did well in 2D to 3D activities did not necessarily have greater procedural knowledge and understanding than their counterparts. These findings support the necessity of the inclusion of visuospatial-type activities in engineering graphics instructional material over and above the largely procedural nature of activities that permeates this field.

Anatomy education has been revolutionized through digital media, resulting in major advances in realism, portability, scalability, and user satisfaction. However, while such approaches may well be more portable, realistic, or satisfying than traditional photographic presentations, it is less clear that they have any superiority in terms of student learning. In this study, it was hypothesized that virtual and mixed reality presentations of pelvic anatomy will have an advantage over two-dimensional (2D) presentations and perform approximately equal to physical models and that this advantage over 2D presentations will be reduced when stereopsis is decreased by covering the non-dominant eye. Groups of 20 undergraduate students learned pelvic anatomy under seven conditions: physical model with and without stereo vision, mixed reality with and without stereo vision, virtual reality with and without stereo vision, and key views on a computer monitor. All were tested with a cadaveric pelvis and a 15-item, short-answer recognition test. Compared to the key views, the physical model had a 70% increase in accuracy in structure identification; the virtual reality a 25% increase, and the mixed reality a non-significant 2.5% change. Blocking stereopsis reduced performance on the physical model by 15%, on virtual reality by 60%, but by only 2.5% on the mixed reality technology. The data show that virtual and mixed reality technologies tested are inferior to physical models and that true stereopsis is critical in learning anatomy.

Problem Statement: The SOLO model places responses provided by students on a certain level instead of placing students there themselves. SOLO taxonomy, including five sub-levels, is used for determining observed structures of learning outcomes in various disciplines and grade levels. On the other hand, the spatial orientation skill is the ability to visualize an object's view from a different perspective. A number of studies on examining preservice teachers' spatial abilities have been performed. In this study, elementary mathematics preservice teachers' spatial orientation skills as components of spatial skills were evaluated through the SOLO model in ways that are different from other researches. Purpose of the Study: The purpose of this study was to analyze the spatial orientation skills of elementary mathematics preservice teachers by using the SOLO model. In addition, responses of students who were at specified levels (low-middle-high) according to the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test scores were also classified. Preservice teachers' responses between different dimensions were also examined according to SOLO taxonomy. Method: The present research was a qualitative study and a case study method was employed. The sample of the study included junior elementary mathematics preservice teachers from a state university. Firstly, the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test was carried out with eighty-one students and then clinical interviews were conducted with six students according to three levels which were specified by looking at the results of the test in this study. The students' answers were placed into a suitable SOLO level according to an evaluation scale by analyzing each of the eight questions used in the Geometrical Achievement Test prepared by the researchers. Findings: Elementary mathematics preservice teachers' responses in a geometrical achievement test relating to spatial orientation skills were generally on a multistructural level according to SOLO taxonomy. Whereas the responses of preservice teachers who were on the low and middle levels were mostly on a multistructural level, the responses of the students on the high level were on a relational level. In addition, the responses of preservice teachers from two-dimension to three-dimension were mostly on a relational level and the responses from three-dimension to two-dimension were mostly on a multistructural level. Conclusion and Recommendations: Results obtained indicated that preservice teachers were not generally successful at combining their information within a consistent structure in terms of spatial orientation skills. They could only evaluate situations which were independent from each other separately. Therefore, students had surface learning rather than deep learning. Obtained data can be evaluated with a different taxonomy and a comparison could be made between these two models in further studies.

This theoretical paper introduces a new way to view and characterize learning astronomy. It describes a framework, based on results from empirical data, analyzed through standard qualitative research methodology, in which a theoretical model for a vital competency of learning astronomy is proposed: "reading the sky," a broad description under with various skills and competencies are included. This model takes into account not only "disciplinary knowledge" but also "disciplinary discernment" and "extrapolating three dimensionality." Together, these constitute the foundation for the competency referred to as "reading the sky." In this paper, these competencies are described and discussed and merged to form a new framework vital for learning astronomy to better match the challenges students face when entering the discipline of astronomy.

Transitions are increasingly recognised as difficult, and less has been written about transitions to postgraduate taught programmes than about transitions into undergraduate or doctoral study. A Scotland-wide project found that new taught Post-graduate (PG), and staff teaching them, can be unclear about what is expected at Master's level, and proposed a framework of seven facets that indicate how students are expected to engage with Master's study. The facets and accompanying resources were designed to be discussion tools, to promote staff and student discussion of what is expected in their programme and subject. In a follow-up project at one university, a questionnaire was designed and distributed to postgraduate students asking them to rate their current level of ability against the skills and capabilities identified as facets for Master's level study. The project found students felt ill-prepared for particular aspects of Master's level study, with sub-group differences between disciplines. Master's courses are intensive and fast-moving, so this has implications for students' preparedness for successfully navigating through their programmes. Some suggestions on how students can be better briefed on what to expect are made.

Three-dimensional (3D) body scanning is becoming an increasingly popular tool for research in the field of family and consumer sciences (FCS) because it quickly and accurately measures constructs that describe the human form. This study compared viewing a 3D body representation to viewing a two-dimensional (2D) representation and whether the effects of these assessments varied by gender. College-student participants (N = 164, 63 women, 101 men) were randomly assigned to one of two different body image groups, a 3D image and a somatomorphic (2D) assessment of body shape. Participants in both conditions completed a body-esteem pre-assessment, had their bodies scanned by a KX-16 body scanner, assessed the copy of their 3D or 2D body image, and then completed the body-esteem post-assessment. The 3D body scan group reported larger drops in body esteem than did the 2D group from pretest to posttest. More specifically, women in the 3D condition reported a larger drop in body esteem from pretest to posttest compared to what the men reported. The results suggest that using a 3D body scanner could have negative short-term effects on body esteem.

Understanding orbital anatomy is important for optometry students, but the learning resources available are often fragile, expensive, and accessible only during scheduled classes. Drawing on a constructivist, personalized approach to learning, this study investigated students' perceptions of an alternative learning resource: a three-dimensional (3D) printed model used in an active learning task. A human skull was three-dimensionally scanned and used to produce a 3D printed model for each student. Students actively participated in model creation by tracing suture lines and coloring individual orbital bones during a practical class, then keeping the model for future study. Students' perceptions of the 3D orbital model were examined through a questionnaire: the impact the model had on their learning; perceptions of the 3D orbit compared to traditional resources; and utility of having their own personalized model. The 3D orbit was well received by the student cohort. Participants (n = 69) preferred the 3D orbit as a resource for learning orbital bone anatomy compared to traditional learning resources, believing the model helped them to understand and visualize the spatial relationships of the bones, and that it increased their confidence to apply this knowledge. Overall, the participants liked that they co-created the model, could touch and feel it, and that they had access to it whenever they liked. Three-dimensional printing technology has the potential to enable the creation of effective learning resources that are robust, low-cost and readily accessible to students, and should be considered by anyone wishing to incorporate personalized resources to their multimodal teaching repertoire.

Advances in computer visualization enabling both 2D and 3D representation have generated tools to aid perception of spatial relationships and provide a new forum for instructional design. A key knowledge gap is the lack of understanding of how the brain neurobiologically processes and learns from spatially presented content, and new quantitative variables are required to address this gap. The objective of this study was to apply quantitative neural measures derived from electroencephalography (EEG) to examine stereopsis in anatomy learning by comparing mean amplitude changes in N250 (related to object recognition) and reward positivity (related to responding to feedback) event related to potential components using a reinforcement-based learning paradigm. Health sciences students (n = 61) learned to identify and localize neuroanatomical structures using 2D, 3D, or a combination of models while EEG and behavioral (accuracy) data were recorded. Participants learning using 3D models had a greater object recognition (N250 amplitude) compared to those who learned from 2D models. Based on neurological results, interleaved learning incorporating both 2D and 3D models provided an advantage in learning, retention, and transfer activities represented by decreased reward positivity amplitude. Behavioral data did not have the same sensitivity as neural data for distinguishing differences in learning with and without stereopsis in these learning activities. Measuring neural activity reveals new insights in applied settings for educators to consider when incorporating stereoscopic models in the design of learning interventions.

Previous studies report the involvement of specific brain activation in stereoscopic vision and the perception of depth information. This work presents the first comparative results of adult women on the effects of stereoscopic perception in three different static environments; a real, a two dimensional (2D) and a stereoscopic three dimensional (3D), all with the same content. Electric brain activity of 36 female students was analyzed at ?, a, ß and ? frequency bands. Results in alpha rhythm as well as alpha desynchronization showed that the topology of cerebral activity is the same in the three environments. The participants experienced three similar and non-demanding environments without specific memory requirements and information encoding. Statistical differences in theta activity showed that the real and 3D environments caused similar cognitive processes, while the 2D caused an increase of anxiety indicating that perhaps participants were looking for the third dimension. Beta and gamma activity showed that participants perceived the third dimension of the stereoscopic environment as in the real one, something that did not happen in the 2D environment. Our findings indicate that stereoscopic 3D virtual environments seem to approximate the real ones as far as it regards the cognitive processes they cause. Three dimensional stereoscopic environments increase users' attention over the 2D and cause less mental effort. These experimental results support the new field of educational neuroscience and its potential to the design of digital learning environments.

Visualizing anatomical structures and functional processes in three dimensions (3D) are important skills for medical students. However, contemplating 3D structures mentally and interpreting biomedical images can be challenging. This study examines the impact of a new pedagogical approach to teaching neuroanatomy, specifically how building a 3D-model from oil-based modeling clay affects learners' understanding of periventricular structures of the brain among undergraduate medical students in Colombia. Students were provided with an instructional video before building the models of the structures, and thereafter took a computer-based quiz. They then brought their clay models to class where they answered questions about the structures via interactive response cards. Their knowledge of periventricular structures was assessed with a paper-based quiz. Afterward, a focus group was conducted and a survey was distributed to understand students' perceptions of the activity, as well as the impact of the intervention on their understanding of anatomical structures in 3D. Quiz scores of students that constructed the models were significantly higher than those taught the material in a more traditional manner (P < 0.05). Moreover, the modeling activity reduced time spent studying the topic and increased understanding of spatial relationships between structures in the brain. The results demonstrated a significant difference between genders in their self-perception of their ability to contemplate and rotate structures mentally (P < 0.05). The study demonstrated that the construction of 3D clay models in combination with autonomous learning activities was a valuable and efficient learning tool in the anatomy course, and that additional models could be designed to promote deeper learning of other neuroanatomy topics.

In-depth interviews with 20 people with monocular vision identified a number of themes associated with the impairment, including psychological, psychosocial, physical, vocational, and daily living problems. They also revealed that in many cases, these problems had profound implications for people's adjustment to daily living. The implications of these findings for the delivery of rehabilitation services are discussed.

Inspired by the promise of new 3D technologies and the proposition that new tools make innovation possible, this article provides a case study of how a tool called Thirty6 was designed and used in classrooms by mathematics teachers in their own varied and invented ways. Unlike established manipulatives that are designed to support the learning of a particular concept, Thirty6 was developed from a generative design perspective to be used by teachers who can decide what instructional purpose it might serve. The authors offer this case study of Thirty6 not merely as a guide for possible re-implementation by the reader but as an exemplar of the possibilities afforded by easy access to 3D design tools and printers. The authors' hope is that other mathematics teachers are inspired by this approach to develop their own tools and undertake their own journey toward making meaning with students.

As an emerging technology, three-dimensional (3D) printing has gained much attention as a rapid prototyping and small-scale manufacturing technology around the world. In the changing scenario of library inclusion, Makerspaces are becoming a part of most public and academic libraries, and 3D printing is one of the technologies included in Makerspaces. Owing to the ease of availability and cost effectiveness, most libraries use fused-deposition-modeling-based 3D printers compatible with plastic printing materials, such as polylactic acid (PLA) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). During the printing, PLA and ABS emit ultrafine particles (UFPs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that may deteriorate the indoor air quality. In this article, first, we have discussed the background of 3D printing, the most common technologies used for 3D printing and printing materials, its applications in chemical education and sciences, as well as 3D printing health and safety concerns. Second, we measured and analyzed the number of UFPs (0.02-1.0 µm) in the 3D printing lab in a library and found that the number of particles/cubic centimeter significantly increased during the printing procedure (36-60 times) and does not return to baseline even 24 h after shutting down the printers. We also provide some recommendations that should be considered when hosting a 3D printing lab in libraries.

3D printing was used to prepare models of the calculated geometries of unsaturated organic structures. Incorporation of p orbital isosurfaces into the models enables students in introductory organic chemistry courses to have hands-on experience with the concept of orbital alignment in strained and unstrained p systems.

Advanced displays and natural user interfaces (NUI) are a very suitable combination for developing systems to provide an enhanced and richer user experience. This combination can be appropriate in several fields and has not been extensively exploited. One of the fields that this combination is especially suitable for is education. Nowadays, children are growing up playing with computer games, using mobile devices, and other technological devices. New learning methods that use these new technologies can help in the learning process. In this paper, two new methods that use advanced displays and NUI for learning about a period of history are presented. One of the methods is an autostereoscopic system that lets children see themselves as a background in the game and renders the elements in 3D without the need for special glasses; the second method is a frontal projection system that projects the image on a table in 2D and works similarly to a touch table. The Microsoft Kinect© is used in both systems for the interaction. A comparative study to check different aspects was carried out. A total of 128 children from 7 to 11 years old participated in the study. From the results, we observed that the different characteristics of the systems did not influence the children's acquired knowledge, engagement, or satisfaction. There were statistically significant differences for depth perception and presence in which the autostereoscopic system was scored higher. However, of the two systems, the children considered the frontal projection to be easier to use. We would like to highlight that the scores for the two systems and for all the questions were very high. These results suggest that games of this kind (advanced displays and NUI) could be appropriate educational games and that autostereoscopy is a technology to exploit in their development.

The use of two-dimensional (2D) images is consistently used to prepare anatomy students for handling real specimen. This study examined whether the quality of 2D images is a critical component in anatomy learning. The visual clarity and consistency of 2D anatomical images was systematically manipulated to produce low-quality and high-quality images of the human hand and human eye. On day 0, participants learned about each anatomical specimen from paper booklets using either low-quality or high-quality images, and then completed a comprehension test using either 2D images or three-dimensional (3D) cadaveric specimens. On day 1, participants relearned each booklet, and on day 2 participants completed a final comprehension test using either 2D images or 3D cadaveric specimens. The effect of image quality on learning varied according to anatomical content, with high-quality images having a greater effect on improving learning of hand anatomy than eye anatomy (high-quality vs. low-quality for hand anatomy P = 0.018; high-quality vs. low-quality for eye anatomy P = 0.247). Also, the benefit of high-quality images on hand anatomy learning was restricted to performance on short-answer (SA) questions immediately after learning (high-quality vs. low-quality on SA questions P = 0.018), but did not apply to performance on multiple-choice (MC) questions (high-quality vs. low-quality on MC questions P = 0.109) or after participants had an additional learning opportunity (24 hours later) with anatomy content (high vs. low on SA questions P = 0.643). This study underscores the limited impact of image quality on anatomy learning, and questions whether investment in enhancing image quality of learning aids significantly promotes knowledge development.

This study explores the processes occurring during technology workshops which built on interests and enhanced social engagement for students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The workshops used a community based research design and focused on teaching a creative three-dimensional (3D) design programme (SketchUp™) to students with ASD. Seven boys (ages 8-17) participated in this pilot programme over a 6-month period. The methodology was a qualitative thematic analysis of videotapes and transcripts of workshop sessions. The two key themes that emerged were: (1) development of authentic peer relationships through humour, common interests, physical actions, and playful competition; and (2) the importance of a scaffolded learning environment with support from peers and an adult mentor, as opportunities for social engagement. These findings indicate that 3D design technology can build on strengths and interests of students with ASD and promote social engagement in naturally occurring environments. A positive youth development philosophy focusing on technology interests may be useful with students with ASD, especially in connection to existing service delivery models.

Research on animals, infants, children, and adults provides evidence that distinct cognitive systems underlie navigation and object recognition. Here we examine whether and how these systems interact when children interpret 2D edge-based perspectival line drawings of scenes and objects. Such drawings serve as symbols early in development, and they preserve scene and object geometry from canonical points of view. Young children show limits when using geometry both in non-symbolic tasks and in symbolic map tasks that present 3D contexts from unusual, unfamiliar points of view. When presented with the familiar viewpoints in perspectival line drawings, however, do children engage more integrated geometric representations? In three experiments, children successfully interpreted line drawings with respect to their depicted scene or object. Nevertheless, children recruited distinct processes when navigating based on the information in these drawings, and these processes depended on the context in which the drawings were presented. These results suggest that children are flexible but limited in using geometric information to form integrated representations of scenes and objects, even when interpreting spatial symbols that are highly familiar and faithful renditions of the visual world.

Emotion detection using facial images is a technique that researchers have been using for the last two decades to try to analyze a person's emotional state given his/her image. Detection of various kinds of emotion using facial expressions of students in educational environment is useful in providing insight into the effectiveness of tutoring sessions. Robust recognition with conventional 2D cameras is still not possible under realistic conditions, i.e., in the presence of variation in lighting and illumination and pose variations of the participants. This paper discusses in brief how facial expression recognition from 3D models could be achieved for applications under various educational environments. 3D Face Model dataset for various facial expressions of about 95 undergraduate students of the Department of Information Science and Engineering was collected. The new dataset produced comprise 3D models of emotions represented by five groups of facial expressions, namely: normal, happy, sad, surprised and angry, which are mainly seen among students during their college days. These data were collected using a Kinect camera, which also gives the depth map for the facial expressions. The dataset collected is a point cloud. The Kinect camera measures a large number of points on the face of the person and this output is stored as a point cloud data (PCD) file. The point cloud thus represents the sets of points that the camera has measured. The data are stored in the PCD file format, which supports the 3D point cloud data, and which can be viewed using any point cloud library (PCL) viewer.

The Republic of Turkey has developed democratic support for equity in education for groups who have various learning needs (Levent, 2011, p. 89-91). In connection with Turkey's central policy of education, current educational applications have addressed these diverse needs to a certain extent. Sak (2011) drew our attention to the insufficiency of gifted education at the primary school level by reporting that "Except in the Science and Art Centers affiliated with the Ministry of National Education and the curricular practices of Anatolian and Istanbul Universities, there are few local services for gifted students in Turkey" (p. 214-215). Although partial and fragmented educational services for gifted students have been expanding in Turkey, gifted students are exposed to the same educational programs as the general student population as required by central education policies. In contrast with this policy, there is a widely accepted belief that gifted students should be educated differently from non-gifted students, based on the fact that the general curriculum is not challenging enough to serve their academic needs (Jonassen & Gabrowski, 1993, p. 310; Tokotro & Steels, 2004, p. 140-141; Tomlinson, Kaplan, Renzulli et al., 2001, p. 13). When Turkey's central education policy is taken into consideration, differentiating the general educational programs without changing their scope seems to be an appropriate way to increase the level of challenge. Differentiation, i.e., modifying the program to align it with the student's characteristics, has long been an accepted approach in gifted and talented education (Tomlinson & Jarvis, 2000, p. 600). In seeking what matters in terms of a satisfactory level of challenge, depth and complexity are referred to as two developmental characteristics for actualizing one's potential and acquiring an academic identity. Therefore, there is broad agreement in the Turkish educational community that studies are needed to identify the types of differentiation that can improve outcomes for gifted students. This study helps to fill that gap by reporting on an experiment that differentiated a 5th-grade science curriculum in terms of depth and complexity.

There has been a significant gap between the tools used for the design of a building's architectural form and those that evaluate the structural physics of that form. Seeking to bring the perspectives of visual design and structural engineering closer together, we developed and evaluated a design tool for students and practitioners to explore the inter-relationships between the "form" and "structure" of long-span structures. We have developed an interactive 3D design application for spatial structures that integrates with a web simulation service, enabling the iterative analytic comparison of designs by structural weight, force distribution, member deflection and stability. In this paper, we describe the design and development of this Structure And Form Analysis System (SAFAS) tool using the usability engineering methodology, presenting its evolution and evaluation though four semesters of use in undergraduate architecture classes. In this paper we present our summative results and lessons learned for the usability engineering of e-Learning systems, scientific visualization of structural dynamics, and user skill sets.

This research aims to apply a depth sensor to create a human-body-sensing context for outdoor learning paths; it is conducted by incorporating both quasi-experiment and survey to compare students' cognitive learning outcome within the context and understand students' attitudes toward the context created. The result of ANCOVA indicates that the context of an introductory film activated by the depth sensor produces better cognitive learning outcome. Furthermore, the survey of students' attitudes also shows positive attitudes from both experimental and control groups toward the additional use of a human-body-sensing system activated by the depth sensor. The experimental results show the depth sensor can be used to improve conventional learning paths, i.e. with information boards only, for it enables students to participate in wireless sensing learning with their hands free from holding any device.

We explored size-distance scaling with a demonstration based on the classic Holway-Boring experiment. Undergraduate psychology majors estimated the sizes of two glowing paper circles under two conditions. In the first condition, the environment was dark and, with no depth cues available, participants ranked the circles according to their angular sizes. In the second condition, the environment was illuminated and, with depth cues available, the students ranked the circles according to actual physical size. The demonstration replicated the key elements of the original experiment, and objective and subjective measures indicated that it improved understanding of size-distance scaling. We also describe variants of the experiment suitable for different instructional environments. (Contains 3 figures and 1 table.)

Two experiments are reported concerning the perception of ground extent to discover whether prior reports of anisotropy between frontal extents and extents in depth were consistent across different measures (visual matching and pantomime walking) and test environments (outdoor environments and virtual environments). In Experiment 1 it was found that depth extents of up to 7 m are indeed perceptually compressed relative to frontal extents in an outdoor environment, and that perceptual matching provided more precise estimates than did pantomime walking. In Experiment 2, similar anisotropies were found using similar tasks in a similar (but virtual) environment. In both experiments pantomime walking measures seemed to additionally compress the range of responses. Experiment 3 supported the hypothesis that range compression in walking measures of perceived distance might be due to proactive interference (memory contamination). It is concluded that walking measures are calibrated for perceived egocentric distance, but that pantomime walking measures may suffer range compression. Depth extents along the ground are perceptually compressed relative to frontal ground extents in a manner consistent with the angular scale expansion hypothesis. (Contains 13 figures.)

Laboratory studies of visual search are generally conducted in contexts with a static observer vantage point, constrained by a fixation cross or a headrest. In contrast, in many naturalistic search settings, observers freely adjust their vantage point by physically moving through space. In two experiments, we evaluate behavior during free vantage point (FVP) search, using observer-controlled zooming to simulate movement toward or away from search objects. We focus on "scope fluctuations"--repeated reversals in the direction of zooming during search. We found increased fluctuation when search items were sparse (Experiment 1) or of mixed size (Experiment 2). We propose that during FVP search, observers attempt to maximize the number of simultaneously discriminable items. Scope fluctuations emerge when maximizing does not enable simultaneous access to all search items, or when observers become disoriented in the search environment, necessitating repeated switches to a broad scope to reorient. (Contains 7 figures and 4 footnotes.)

The teaching of 3D digital game design requires the development of students' meta-skills, from story creativity to 3D model construction, and even the visualization process in design thinking. The characteristics a good game designer should possess have been identified as including redesign things, creativity thinking and the ability to visualize ideas from imagination. Therefore, 3D visualization is a key skill in this context. To help students fully focus on game design rather than on complicated 3D modeling or animation skills, this study developed an authoring package that is integrated with Google 3D Warehouse, SketchUp, and a web-based 3D multi-user platform: 3D Cyber Worlds. The proposed game design authoring package was used with 53 college students for one semester, while a total of 108 students were involved in the overall study. The results indicate that the package achieved its aim of in assisting students in the game design process, including that of 3D modeling, and is feasible for future development using advance web technologies. Examples of the students' game design projects and feedback on the use of this authoring package are also presented and discussed.

The traditional important role of maps used for educational purposes has gained further potential with recent advances in GIS technology. But beyond specific courses in cartography this potential seems little realized in geography teaching. This article investigates the extent to which any learning benefits may be derived from the use of such technologies. A controlled experiment was conducted to examine whether information recall is improved when cartographic information on population distribution is presented in 2D versus 3D form. The results show statistically significant differences in learning benefits between the two formats, largely in favor of 2D representation. These findings suggest that learning benefits can be derived from paying greater attention to map format in educational settings. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

In 1912, Max Wertheimer published his paper on phi motion, widely recognized as the start of Gestalt psychology. Because of its continued relevance in modern psychology, this centennial anniversary is an excellent opportunity to take stock of what Gestalt psychology has offered and how it has changed since its inception. We first introduce the key findings and ideas in the Berlin school of Gestalt psychology, and then briefly sketch its development, rise, and fall. Next, we discuss its empirical and conceptual problems, and indicate how they are addressed in contemporary research on perceptual grouping and figure-ground organization. In particular, we review the principles of grouping, both classical (e.g., proximity, similarity, common fate, good continuation, closure, symmetry, parallelism) and new (e.g., synchrony, common region, element and uniform connectedness), and their role in contour integration and completion. We then review classic and new image-based principles of figure-ground organization, how it is influenced by past experience and attention, and how it relates to shape and depth perception. After an integrated review of the neural mechanisms involved in contour grouping, border ownership, and figure-ground perception, we conclude by evaluating what modern vision science has offered compared to traditional Gestalt psychology, whether we can speak of a Gestalt revival, and where the remaining limitations and challenges lie. A better integration of this research tradition with the rest of vision science requires further progress regarding the conceptual and theoretical foundations of the Gestalt approach, which is the focus of a second review article. (Contains 24 figures and 6 tables.)

Three experiments examined perceived absolute distance in a head-mounted display virtual environment (HMD-VE) and a matched real-world environment, as a function of the type and orientation of the distance viewed. In Experiment 1, participants turned and walked, without vision, a distance to match the viewed interval for both egocentric (viewer-to-target) and exocentric (target-to-target) extents. Egocentric distances were underestimated in the HMD-VE while exocentric distances were estimated similarly across environments. Since egocentric distances were displayed in the depth plane and exocentric distances in the frontal plane, the pattern of results could have been related to the orientation of the distance or to the type of distance. Experiments 2 and 3 tested these alternatives. Participants estimated exocentric distances presented along the depth or frontal plane either by turning and walking (Experiment 2) or by turning and throwing a beanbag to indicate the perceived extent (Experiment 3). For both Experiments 2 and 3, depth intervals were underestimated in the HMD-VE compared to the real world. However, frontal intervals were estimated similarly across environments. The findings suggest anisotropy in HMD-VE distance perception such that distance underestimation in the HMD-VE generalizes to intervals in the depth plane, but not to intervals in the frontal plane. (Contains 1 table and 6 figures.)

Aim: Cerebral visual impairment (CVI) is a disorder caused by damage to the retrogeniculate visual pathways. Cerebral palsy (CP) and CVI share a common origin: 60 to 70% of children with CP also have CVI. We set out to describe visual dysfunction in children with CP. A further aim was to establish whether different types of CP are associated with different patterns of visual involvement. Methods: A total of 129 patients (54 females, 75 males; mean age 4y 6mo, SD 3y 5mo; range 3mo-15y) with CP (51 with diplegia, 61 with tetraplegia, and 17 with hemiplegia; 62 [48%] of participants were able to walk) and CVI enrolled at the Centre of Child Neuro-ophthalmology (at the Department of Child Neurology and Psychiatry, IRCCS "C. Mondino Institute of Neurology", University of Pavia) underwent an assessment protocol including neurological examination, developmental and/or cognitive assessment, neuro-ophthalmological evaluation including ophthalmological assessment, evaluation of visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, optokinetic nystagmus, visual field and stereopsis, and neuroradiological investigations. Results: Visual dysfunction in diplegia was characterized mainly by refractive errors (75% of patients), strabismus (90%), abnormal saccadic movements (86%), and reduced visual acuity (82%). The participants with hemiplegia showed strabismus (71%) and refractive errors (88%); oculomotor involvement was less frequent (59%). This group had the largest percentage of patients with altered visual field (64%). Children with tetraplegia showed a severe neuro-ophthalmological profile, characterized by ocular abnormalities (98%), oculomotor dysfunction (100%), and reduced visual acuity (98%). Interpretation: Neuro-ophthalmological disorders are one of the main symptoms in CP. Each clinical type of CP is associated with a distinct neuro-ophthalmological profile. Early and careful neuro-ophthalmological assessment of children with CP is essential for an accurate diagnosis and for personalized rehabilitation.

The inherent spatial complexity of the human cerebral ventricular system, coupled with its deep position within the brain, poses a problem for conceptualizing its anatomy. Cadaveric dissection, while considered the gold standard of anatomical learning, may be inadequate for learning the anatomy of the cerebral ventricular system; even with intricate dissection, ventricular structures remain difficult to observe. Three-dimensional (3D) computer reconstruction of the ventricular system offers a solution to this problem. This study aims to create an accurate 3D computer reconstruction of the ventricular system with surrounding structures, including the brain and cerebellum, using commercially available 3D rendering software. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of a male cadaver were segmented using both semiautomatic and manual tools. Segmentation involves separating voxels of different grayscale values to highlight specific neural structures. User controls enable adding or removing of structures, altering their opacity, and making cross-sectional slices through the model to highlight inner structures. Complex physiologic concepts, such as the flow of cerebrospinal fluid, are also shown using the 3D model of the ventricular system through a video animation. The model can be projected stereoscopically, to increase depth perception and to emphasize spatial relationships between anatomical structures. This model is suited for both self-directed learning and classroom teaching of the 3D anatomical structure and spatial orientation of the ventricles, their connections, and their relation to adjacent neural and skeletal structures. (Contains 4 figures.)