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Leadership issues in shadow education are under-researched in national, regional and international contexts. In China, local and central governments have imposed stringent control on academic K9 paid tutorial lessons, provided by cram schools under the new double reduction policy (DRP). Many large-scale cram schools have undergone drastic changes in their organizational structure, marketing strategies and the working environment under the COVID-19 attack and DRP. This study aims to conceptualize how their academic managers in some regions of China exhibited traits of entrepreneurial leadership involving competence and resilience. Qualitative research methods included content analysis of policy documents, observation of tutorial lessons and semi-structured interviews with academic managers. Without overgeneralization, this study merely acts as a motivational guide for complementing the existing research literature on cram schools in China and enriching the international research literature on entrepreneurial leadership in mass tutoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Investigating the relationship between what Japanese elementary school students (aged 8 to 12) actually do and what they want to do in their free time, and clarifying the problems concerning Japanese children's free time. Background: Previous studies reported that 51.2% of Japanese fifth and sixth graders answered that they were either "very busy" or "busy" when asked about their after-school time. Only 21.3% of the boys and 11.4% of the girls answered that they played outside after school. Further, children aged between 9 and 13 responded that they wanted more free time. Methods: Using a self-filled questionnaire, demographic data and responses about their top activities were collected for 1,230 children who were third to sixth graders (8-12 years old). Participants were asked "What do you want to do when you have free time?" and the answer was selected among 11 choices. The relationship between free time and living time was based on multivariate binomial logistic regression analysis. Results: The top activity was utilising a digital device and then "physical activity". The results show that there was a correspondence between children's top activity and what they were actually doing. Children who chose screen time activity attended a cram school and had longer indoor play times and shorter outdoor play time than other children. Conclusions: Children chose an activity that could be easily done alone in a short time, and there was a lack of free time. In addition, children who chose physical activity had longer outdoor play time and shorter indoor play time than other children. We surmised that the only play that they knew was actually chosen, because there was little experience of other activities. Thus, Japanese children seem to have reduced choices and time for activities during their free time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attending cram school has long been a trend in ethnic Chinese culture areas, including Taiwan. Despite the fact that school reform policies have been implemented in Taiwan, cram schools have continued to prosper. Therefore, in this educational culture, how to achieve a good educational effect is also a topic worthy of discussion. However, whether students really engage in those tutoring programs provided by cram schools has seldom been studied. To address this gap, this study explored how parents' hovering attitude toward life and coursework influences their children's engagement in cram schools. This study targeted those students who attend English cram schools to test the correlates between two types of helicopter parenting, tutoring engagement and continued attendance at cram schools. A total of 320 questionnaires were sent out, and 300 were returned, giving an overall response rate of 93.75%. Excluding seven incomplete or invalid questionnaires, 293 valid questionnaires were received. The results of this study show that hovering behavior awareness is negatively related to cram school engagement, whereas cram school engagement is positively related to the intention to continue attending cram school. Moreover, the results imply that parents should alleviate their helicoptering behavior to enhance their children's engagement in cram school tutoring programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Professor Glenn Fulcher's research has influenced language testing and assessment in two ways: in proposing a new understanding of data-driven speaking test design, and in drawing attention to the core identity of language testers. The former has had a powerful impact on practical speaking testing and assessment. The latter has asked a very essential question of what language testers do, exploring philosophical, historical, and social ideas from a pragmatic view of language testing and assessment. In particular, Fulcher (2015)'s chapters on meritocracy and values in language tests explain why we have been using tests throughout history to discern vital roles of language tests and yet why people attempt to cheat on them, in relation to 'three Ms' ideas including meritocracy, material success, and motivation. Within this view, this paper aims to review TOEFL cramming practices on test preparation, using Fulcher (2015)'s notion of cheating. Korean test takers study TOEFL cramming skills at test preparation companies to acquire admission to schools, called Hagwons in Korean. However, there is little research regarding cramming practices in terms of cheating. Collected data from my doctoral study (Kim, 2016) were reviewed. It was found that cramming skills as a form of cheating were explicitly taught in class, including use of actual test questions, memorisation of sample answers, and the use of a testing environment. The study revealed reasons to lead the cramming skills: (1) practical benefits of test scores, (2) speaking and writing sections and (3) investments of test preparation. The implications of the study are to raise awareness of the importance of links between cheating and cramming in the field of language testing and teaching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attending cram school has long been a trend in ethnic Chinese culture areas, including Taiwan. Despite the fact that school reform policies have been implemented in Taiwan, cram schools have continued to prosper. Therefore, in this educational culture, how to achieve a good educational effect is also a topic worthy of discussion. However, whether students really engage in those tutoring programs provided by cram schools has seldom been studied. To address this gap, this study explored how parents’ hovering attitude toward life and coursework influences their children’s engagement in cram schools. This study targeted those students who attend English cram schools to test the correlates between two types of helicopter parenting, tutoring engagement and continued attendance at cram schools. A total of 320 questionnaires were sent out, and 300 were returned, giving an overall response rate of 93.75%. Excluding seven incomplete or invalid questionnaires, 293 valid questionnaires were received. The results of this study show that hovering behavior awareness is negatively related to cram school engagement, whereas cram school engagement is positively related to the intention to continue attending cram school. Moreover, the results imply that parents should alleviate their helicoptering behavior to enhance their children’s engagement in cram school tutoring programs.

In many Asian countries and increasingly in the West, primary and secondary school students receive private tutoring, often in the form of lectures in cram schools. As English is an international lingua franca, many students enroll in English courses after school. Students enrolled in English private tutoring (EPT) are often examination-driven and extrinsically motivated to learn English, but past studies have not examined whether they like EPT lessons. Hence, we integrate motivation and tutoring into a theoretical model of EPT enjoyment at different levels (student, family, teacher, tutoring) and empirically test it with the survey responses of 543 Secondary Six (Grade 12) students enrolled in EPT courses in cram schools. The findings show that most Secondary Six students in Hong Kong like EPT lessons. Family, reasons for tutoring, tutoring, and student attributes are linked to EPT enjoyment. These students are more likely to like EPT if they (a) are in families perceived to have superior financial resources, (b) are not influenced by advertisements or other people to join EPT lessons, (c) attend face-to-face tutoring, (d) have a specific tutor, (e) like the tutor more than their teachers, (f) are interested in English, or (g) have greater English self-concept. The results of this study can contribute to our understanding of which motivation and tutoring factors affect students' enjoyment of EPT and inform EPT improvements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper adds an organizational dimension to the body of literature on international student mobility. Existing studies examine push/pull factors and student motivations, neglecting that students' motivations and demands are not necessarily spontaneous, but can be shaped by external forces. Drawing on interview, archival and observation data collected on four leading cram schools that prepare students for the TOEFL/GRE, IELTS and SAT in China, I argue that cram schools not only coach students on test preparation and "how to study abroad," but they also adopt organizational framing to instill in students "why to study abroad." Leading cram schools have played an integral role in promoting a certain organizational framing as the dominant approach of a niche market in a given era. During the 1990s, when the TOEFL/GRE niche market was rapidly expanding, the market leader in this niche promoted self-help and nationalism as dominant discourses. Self-help discourse frames overseas study and test preparation not as means, but as the ends of students' lives: going beyond one's limit and making one's life complete. Nationalist discourse depicts overseas study as a detour to build a stronger China after learning from the West. After 2000, however, new organizational framing picked up momentum in the new niche markets of IELTS and SAT. Targeting urban middle-class consumers, market leaders in these new niches increasingly framed studying abroad as a springboard for immigration, a channel for becoming global elites and an opportunity for status improvement for the entire family. My article bridges literature on transnational higher education with studies on supplementary education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students of middling achievement who achieve intermediate results on the Basic Competence Test, a national high-stakes entrance examination in Taiwan, experience the highest test anxiety. The present study explored why such students experienced greater test anxiety and the source of that anxiety. A questionnaire survey was administered to 5,220 Taiwanese Grade 9 students in order to collect data on test anxiety, reasons for test anxiety, time spent on study, and frequency of cram school attendance. Data regarding students' achievement on the Basic Competence Test were also collected. The research findings were as follows: First, students of middling achievement had higher test anxiety than their peers. Second, the reasons for their test anxiety also varied according to levels of academic performance – students with middling achievement experienced anxiety about the possibility of not being admitted to a state school (which are more prestigious than private schools in Taiwan). Third, students of middling achievement spent approximately the same amount of time studying as top students but more time studying at cram schools. The findings indicate that students of middle achievement might experience greater test anxiety because they spend more time studying but still run the risk of not being admitted to a state school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of private supplementary tutoring in the well-being of youth has been speculated upon but remains understudied. Using data from the Taiwan Educational Panel Survey gathered in 2001 and 2003, this study joins the inverse-probability-of-treatment weighting approach and seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) model to estimate effects of cram schooling on two correlated outcomes: academic achievement and depressive symptoms in Grade 9. The findings suggest that 9th grade cram schooling has a positive effect on both academic achievement and depression in Grade 9. In other words, while cram schooling increases 9th graders' academic achievement, it raises the risk of depression as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Formal English language education in Taiwan now starts at Year 3 in primary school, with an emphasis on communicative proficiency. In addition to formal education, attending English cram schools after regular school has become a common phenomenon for Taiwanese students. The main purpose of gaining additional reinforcement in English cram schools is to help pupils enhance their academic performance. However, how pupils use strategies to approach their learning, how they prefer to develop their listening skills, and their relation to different learning environments, say, formal and cram schools, are still unclear. The aim of the present study is to investigate how far formal and cram school English education and the degree of English listening comprehension influences different aspects of listening strategy use and learning styles. The research involved a questionnaire survey of 526 Year 6 primary school pupils. The analysis of the questionnaire was conducted through multivariate analysis of variance and chi-square tests of independence. Results showed that there was a close link between English listening comprehension, learning in English cram schools, certain types of strategy use, and learning styles. Pupils who preferred to learn English in cram schools reported better English listening comprehension and developed better cognitive strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using two nationally representative datasets, this paper examines how the imposition of a curfew on private cram schools affects the consumption of private tutoring services as well as the time use patterns of Korean high school students. To identify the impact of the curfew, this study capitalizes on inter-city/province variation in private cram school regulatory ordinances and estimates a difference-in-differences estimator between the years of 2009 and 2012. The findings indicate that the curfew was ineffective in reducing the level of household expenditure or the total number of hours spent on private tutoring. However, imposition of the curfew was found to be associated with increases in time spent on sleeping as well as in internet usage for non-academic purposes. Interestingly, changes in time use patterns were not found among students in the highest socio-economic status group indicating that the curfew policy may have certain unintended consequences. Policy implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

臺灣許多家長讓子女跨區到明星學校就讀，不過若依Coleman等人的論點，明星學校學生成績較好主要是因為它們收到高社經背景學生，而非教育品質較佳。研究者還沒看到有國內研究用校際間成績比較來檢證以上論點，研究者也就運用「臺東縣教育長期資料庫」2005年全縣國二學生普查資料檢證以上論點。研究結果顯示：臺東市某明星國中，在全縣標準化學業測驗中，成績居第二名，成績最高的是一所私校，此私校平均家庭收入比明星國中更高。在控制社經背景等出身背景變項後，各國中與明星國中的成績差距大幅縮減。明星國中學生社經背景較高，學生到校外補習班補學科比率最高，是該校成績較高的主要原因。 In Taiwan many parents send their children to prestigious schools across school districts. However, according to Coleman et al., higher student academic performance in prestigious schools is due to higher student socioeconomic background rather than better educational quality. As we had not seen comparative studies testing the above theory in Taiwan, we used the census data of eighth graders in Taitung Educational Panel Survey 2005 to understand this local phenomenon. It was showed that the average scores of students in the prestigious school ranked second, while students in one private school performed best. Those students in the private school had higher family income than students in the prestigious school. After controlling socioeconomic and other background variables, score gap between the prestigious school and others substantially decreased. Higher socioeconomic background and the highest cramming percentage accounted for the higher student academic performance in the prestigious school.

The article discusses the success of Japanese shadow education or the Juku industry despite reforms in educational system. The credit of its popularity is given to its increasing flexibility and willingness to adapt to address social issues like educational disparity and opportunities. Furthermore, it meets the needs of families and acts redeemer of stability and order which has elevated its importance.

Copyright of E-International Journal of Educational Research is the property of E-International Journal of Educational Research and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Research Papers of the Wroclaw University of Economics / Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wroclawiu is the property of Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny we Wroclawiu and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of a technology-supported learning environment utilizing an interactive whiteboard (IWB) and NuCalc graphing software compared to a traditional direct instruction-based environment on student achievement in graphs of quadratic functions and attitudes towards mathematics and technology. Sixty-five high school graduates attending cram schools (called dershane in Turkish) to study for the university entrance examination participated in the study. The significant interaction effect between time of testing and groups indicated that student performance across time of testing was dependent upon the presence or absence of the treatment. Comparisons suggest that although both experimental and control group students' performances increased from pre-test to post-test and then decreased from post-test to retention test, the rate of decrease was about the same and the rate of increase was different, with students showing a greater rate of increase in the experimental group. The results also revealed that the treatment had positively affected students' attitudes towards technology and mathematics. Moreover, students' reasoning and interpretation skills regarding graphs of quadratic functions were better in the experimental group as compared to those in the control group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study endeavors to reveal senior high school students' motivational orientations in attending cram schools, how they approach English learning there, and to what extent they find cram schooling facilitates their English learning. Questionnaires were distributed to 365 respondents, followed by four focus group interviews. Results show that instrumental and integrative motivation play crucial roles in students' motivation for learning English at a cram school. Cram school learners mostly adopted passive role and rote learning, which was associated with surface learning approach. A large percent of participants believed attending cram schools was beneficial in helping them achieve higher grades in English exams and gain admission to a university. On the other hand, they did not find cram schooling to be as helpful in the enhancement of their competence or confidence in using English. In view of this, suggestions are highlighted as to how CEE should work out a more holistic evaluation to reflect English learners' needs in communicating in English more competently and confidently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this paper is to estimate the real heterogeneous effect of studying in a juku (a private preparatory school for entrance examinations) during junior high school on progression to high schools. Although attending juku is common among Japanese people, no consensus has been reached about the real educational effect of juku. Generally, placing students into groups that will or will not attend juku is not performed randomly. Instead, it is assumed that students are more likely to attend juku when their parents are enthusiastic about their child's education and have a high socioeconomic status. The simple correlation between attending juku and the progression to high-ranking high schools can be observed. However, this does not always imply that there is a real effect of juku on the progression to high-ranking high schools, because it may be a spurious correlation associated with the relationship between attending juku and the parents' high socioeconomic status. If a regression model is estimated in such a way as to control for socioeconomic variables, the coefficient of attending juku might show bias in the event that attending juku and unobserved heterogeneity are correlated. In addition, it cannot be assumed that attending juku has a uniform effect on everyone, although past analyses did not consider the heterogeneity of the effect. To overcome the difficulty of preceding research, a propensity score matching analysis based on a counterfactual causal inference framework is applied in this study. Data from the second wave of the Japanese Life Course Panel Survey was used. As a result, people whose parents had high educational backgrounds, who lived in urban areas such as the Kanto region, and who had few brothers and sisters were more likely to attend juku. As expected, the effect of juku was not uniform, and the result showed a contrast between boys and girls. A boy who had a high propensity for attending juku was more likely to gain a positive effect on the progression to high-ranking high schools. On the other hand, a girl who had a low propensity for attending juku was more likely to gain a positive effect on the progression to high-ranking high schools. Beyond that, the reason the result differed between boys and girls is considered. Finally, I have shown that using propensity score matching has several caveats: the need to consider the Stable Unit Treatment Value Assumption (SUTVA), unstable results, and deletion of unmatched samples. However, this analysis presents the possibility that not only can an unbiased estimation be obtained, but the linkage between sociological theories and statistical analyses can also be clarified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dropout problem is an important issue in every UNESP social prep course, focus of several types of reflection. The authors' experience in coordinating "Cursinho Desafio" (a course that prepares students to take the university entrance test) motivated them to investigate the social and economical factors that may be predictive of a student initially driven to abandon his studies, trying to identify causes that prevent or promote evasion of the students in these projects by comparing two different samples by means of access to the course. The escape of the students who enter using for social economical criteria doesn't differ, per se, from the escape of other students. However, this study showed us that the student's support network is essential, and as difficulties that are added up to their permanence, there is increased evasion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Attendance at cram schools is an experience that the majority of Taiwanese have while growing up. However, the incidence and impact of cram schooling are still understudied and have yet received much attention. In this paper, I first illustrate the development of cram schools in Taiwan, and demonstrate the important changes on institutional factors and legitimacy of cram schools. Then I use data collected by Taiwan Education Panel Survey to investigate the net effect of cram schooling on students’ academic performance, and to test whether the opportunity of cram school participation reflects specific patterns of stratification. Empirical results indicate that cram schooling does matter: attending cram schools has a significantly positive effect on a student''s analytical ability and mathematical performance. However, cram school participation does not reflect specific patterns of social stratification: the opportunity of going to a cram school for a male student is not significantly different from that of a female; the effects of family background on students’ cram school participation are not as critical as they were in the past. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Using data from the Education Longitudinal Study, this study assessed the relevance of shadow education to the high academic performance of East Asian American students by examining how East Asian American students differed from other racial/ethnic students in the prevalence, purpose, and effects of using the two forms—commercial test preparation service and private one-to-one tutoring—of SAT coaching, defined as the American style of shadow education. East Asian American students were most likely to take a commercial SAT test preparation course for the enrichment purpose and benefited most from taking this particular form of SAT coaching. However, this was not the case for private SAT one-to-one tutoring. While black students were most likely to utilize private tutoring for the remedial purpose, the impact of private tutoring was trivial for all racial/ethnic groups, including East Asian American students. The authors discuss broader implications of the findings on racial/ethnic inequalities in educational achievement beyond the relevance of shadow education for the academic success of East Asian American students. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Cram schooling is believed by students and their parents to have positive effects on learning achievement in Taiwan. Using two waves of panel data gathered by the Taiwan Education Panel Study (TEPS) in 2001 and 2003 and the method of propensity score matching (PSM), the present research found that the average treatment effect for participants of mathematics cramming programs is fairly small. Moreover, the PSM analysis revealed that propensity to attend cram school, higher parental education level, and prior mathematics ability are all negatively related to effects of mathematics cramming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the possible determinants of the demand for private tutoring (PT) in South Korea. Questionnaire data from 3,605 parents of 12th grade students were collected from 45 proportionally-stratified South Korean high schools and analyzed using the Tobit and CQR models. The results indicated that among the student and family background characteristics considered, the students' achievement level, household income, and parental educational level were positively associated with the number of hours spent in PT. At the school level, students in schools with higher student-teacher ratios seemed to spend more time in PT. Above all, governmental laws that regulate the operating hours of cram schools contributed to a decrease in PT usage. This paper discusses the practical implications of this research for policymakers and identifies areas for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article traces the converging influences on and development of private education in modern Western countries. The development of for-profit schools, so-called cram schools, and private tutoring in Japan and the U.S. are seen as driven by the market economy. In Germany the growth of International Baccalaureate education is noted. Prognoses for private and religious schooling in Germany are suggested.

Copyright of Zeitschrift für Pädagogik is the property of Julius Beltz GmbH & Co. KG Beltz Juventa and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In the face of heavy demand for private supplementary tutoring in basic education, the state seems to have adopted a consumerism model in the decentralised governance of mass tutoring, allowing students and parents to select for themselves course information, payment amounts and methods, tutoring dates and times, and physical conditions when buying services from registered cram schools in Hong Kong. In the study reported here, a 3-level cultural analysis of cram schools was conducted from 1998 to 2008 to examine the patterns of mass tuition trends in Hong Kong. The analysis investigated the impacts of such trends, or culture, upon youth values, and implications are drawn for policy making, educational reform, societal movements, and academic recommendations for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The majority of Taiwanese people have had some experience of cram schooling while growing up. From an academic perspective, cram schooling in Taiwan is not only a unique educational issue, but also a social fact worthy of closer examination. In this paper, I first describe the history of the development of cram schooling in Taiwan and demonstrate the general characteristics of cram schooling for different levels of students. Secondly, based on the theoretical perspectives of credentialism, cultural capital, and employment in the labour market, I analyse the causes of the rise in demand for cram schooling. And I propose some possible directions for future research and decision making with regard to relevant policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High stakes testing in Japan has led to a variety of social consequences. This paper focuses on the consequences on the family, on schools, and on the children themselves. Although there are some benefits from the present testing system, some severe problems have occurred, especially the problem of children's lack of future visions of their occupations. The core of the mechanism producing the problem may have come from the Japanese company system. It is suggested that the OJT (On the Job Training) system should be re evaluated in light of these disadvantages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In reviewing educational trends in Japan during the post-World War II era, the authors found that current national data sets do not contain questions about family background or rank of school attended that are detailed enough to permit a significant analysis of the impact of family background on educational attainment. Given Japan's stature in the current community of nations, the continued government aversion to collecting family income or educational background data, along with precise data on rank of school attended and/or types of cram school, appears negligent The authors discuss both cultural and political reasons that may create a reluctance to collect such data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study compares the teaching effectiveness of cram school tutors and schoolteachers of English based on the perceptions of senior secondary students in Hong Kong. It adopts a sequential mixed-methods approach. The result from the online survey (N = 477) indicates that tutors are perceived to be more effective than schoolteachers in all identified aspects of effective teaching. However, the qualitative data from focus group interviews (n = 64) reveals a more complex picture. By problematising students' perceptions with reference to the wider social, cultural and educational context, three themes were generated: (1) students' utilitarian learning orientations in an examination-oriented system, (2) the commodification of education in a consumer culture, and (3) students' immediate psychological needs in the process of learning. This study sheds light on the complex relationship between private tutoring and mainstream schooling and offers implications for policymaking and teaching in the private and mainstream sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of a delayed bedtime on school children were examined. Among 204 primary school children, 34 children (17%) went to bed after 23.00 hours. In comparison with those who went to bed before 23.00 hours, the sleep time of the former group was more than 1 h shorter, their mood after awakening was worse, and they dozed off more frequently during the daytime. These children more frequently attended cram school and studied at home 1 h later each night. It would be appropriate to reconsider their life style and not to delay the development of good life habits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]