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Background: Disease can drastically impair common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production. Anthracnose, caused by the fungal pathogen Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. and Magnus) Briosi and Cavara, is one of the diseases that are widespread and cause serious economic loss in common bean. Results: Transcriptome analysis of the early response of common bean to anthracnose was performed using two resistant genotypes, Hongyundou and Honghuayundou, and one susceptible genotype, Jingdou. A total of 9,825 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) responding to pathogen infection and anthracnose resistance were identified by differential expression analysis. By using weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA), 2,051 DEGs were found to be associated with two resistance-related modules. Among them, 463 DEGs related to anthracnose resistance were considered resistance-related candidate genes. Nineteen candidate genes were coexpressed with three resistance genes, Phvul.001G243600, Phvul.001G243700 and Phvul.001G243800. To further identify resistance genes, 46 candidate genes were selected for experimental validation using salicylic acid (SA) and methyl jasmonate (MeJA). The results indicated that 38 candidate genes that responded to SA/MeJA treatment may be involved in anthracnose resistance in common bean. Conclusions: This study identified 38 resistance-related candidate genes involved in the early response of common bean, and 19 resistance-related candidate genes were coexpressed with anthracnose resistance genes. This study identified putative resistance genes for further resistance genetic investigation and provides an important reference for anthracnose resistance breeding in common bean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Up to 32 Colletotrichum species have been reported to be associated with pre‐ or postharvest diseases of citrus globally, while in Australia, six species have been reported to cause citrus leaf and fruit disease. Twig or shoot dieback has recently been observed as an emerging disease in citrus orchards in Western Australia. Colletotrichum species were isolated from diseased twigs showing dieback (withertip) or lesions, with or without gummosis, collected from 12 varieties of orange, mandarin and lemon. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides sensu stricto, Colletotrichum karstii and Colletotrichum novae‐zelandiae were identified using a polyphasic approach that included multigene phylogenetic analysis using sequences of internal transcribed spacer and intervening 5.8S nrDNA (ITS), glyceraldehyde‐3‐phosphate dehydrogenase (gapdh), β‐tubulin (tub2), actin (act) and histone (his3) for isolates in the boninense species complex, and Apn2–Mat1–2 intergenic spacer and partial mating type (Mat1–2) (ApMat) and glutamine synthetase (gs) for isolates in the gloeosporioides species complex, as well as morphological characteristics. C. gloeosporioides was the most prevalent species associated with twig dieback in Western Australia, while C. novae‐zelandiae was reported for the first time in Australia. Pathogenicity tests on shoot twigs from lemon and orange trees confirmed C. gloeosporioides, C. karstii and C. novae‐zelandiae as the cause of twig dieback, with C. gloeosporioides being the most aggressive species. Knowledge of the species causing twig dieback and their lifestyle will assist the development of integrated control methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthracnose, caused by several Colletotrichum species, is a major restricting factor for guava production, but no comprehensive study of the causal agent has been conducted from the plant host centre of diversity. This work characterizes isolates from guava, mainly from the fruit, but also leaves and flowers, representing most Brazilian physiographies according to the partial sequences of the rDNA‐ITS, ApMAT, TUB2, HIS3 and GAPDH gene regions. In addition, the pathogenicity and aggressiveness to fruits of two widely planted guava varieties (SLG and RM) are described. Guava‐derived Colletotrichum isolates were found in five complexes: gloeosporioides, acutatum, boninense, gigasporum and orchidearum. The gloeosporioides complex was the most prevalent (81%), followed by the acutatum complex (14%). A total of 16 Colletotrichum species were naturally associated with guava anthracnose: C. aeschynomenes, C. asianum, C. chrysophilum, C. fructicola, C. gigasporum, C. gloeosporioides, C. karsti, C. melonis, C. musae, C. nymphaeae, C. paranaense, C. siamense, C. sojae, C. syzygicola, C. theobromicola and C. tropicale. Apart from C. nymphaeae and C. gloeosporioides, all the remaining 14 taxa are reported for the first time in P. guajava. The most aggressive species belonged to the C. gloeosporioides complex. C. siamense was the most prevalent, especially in warmer regions, followed by C. chrysophilum, mostly in temperate environments. The most aggressive species were C. siamense, C. chrysophilum, C. fructicola and C. tropicale. Fruits of the variety SLG were consistently more resistant to anthracnose than the fruits of RM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Fusarium zanthoxyli is a destructive pathogen causing stem canker in prickly ash, an ecologically and economically important forest tree. However, the genome lack of F. zanthoxyli has hindered research on its interaction with prickly ash and the development of precise control strategies for stem canker. Results: In this study, we sequenced and annotated a relatively high-quality genome of F. zanthoxyli with a size of 43.39 Mb, encoding 11,316 putative genes. Pathogenicity-related factors are predicted, comprising 495 CAZymes, 217 effectors, 156 CYP450s, and 202 enzymes associated with secondary metabolism. Besides, a comparative genomics analysis revealed Fusarium and Colletotrichum diverged from a shared ancestor approximately 141.1 ~ 88.4 million years ago (MYA). Additionally, a phylogenomic investigation of 12 different phytopathogens within Fusarium indicated that F. zanthoxyli originated approximately 34.6 ~ 26.9 MYA, and events of gene expansion and contraction within them were also unveiled. Finally, utilizing conserved domain prediction, the results revealed that among the 59 unique genes, the most enriched domains were PnbA and ULP1. Among the 783 expanded genes, the most enriched domains were PKc_like kinases and those belonging to the APH_ChoK_Like family. Conclusion: This study sheds light on the genetic basis of F. zanthoxyli's pathogenicity and evolution which provides valuable information for future research on its molecular interactions with prickly ash and the development of effective strategies to combat stem canker. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Societal Impact Statement: Vanilla is one of the most valuable spices in the world. In Madagascar and La Réunion, the world's leading producers, vanilla is of great economic and cultural importance. Like all orchids, vanilla plants associate with mycorrhizal fungi in their roots forming mutualistic associations that allow them to grow and thrive. Understanding the diversity of mycorrhizal fungi adapted to vanilla cultivation, particularly in the Indian Ocean islands where they have never previously been studied, is becoming a necessity for maintaining vanilla crops in these regions in the face of climate change and the emergence of new pathogens. Summary: The vanilla orchid (Vanilla spp.) is one of the most valuable cultivated plants worldwide. As with all orchids, vanillas form mycorrhizal associations with fungi in their roots, but their fungal partners have not been investigated outside their native geographic range in Central America.We investigated the whole fungal and mycorrhizal associations in cultivated vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) by sequencing the fungal ITS‐2 marker in the terrestrial and aerial roots using a metabarcoding approach. We selected plants cultivated in three conditions (i.e., cultivation under shade house, in openfield, or in the understory) in one locality of La Réunion island (Indian Ocean) and tested for a possible effect of cultivation practices on fungal communities.Cultivated vanillas in La Réunion mainly associate with Tulasnellaceae (75 OTUs) and Ceratobasidiaceae (8 OTUs). Among the seven most abundant Tulasnellaceae, six are similar to fungi detected in the roots of cultivated vanillas in Central America or in the roots of native orchids in La Réunion. Cultivation practices impacted both total fungal and mycorrhizal community compositions with no clear effect on fungal richness. Notably, Tulasnellaceae and Ceratobasidiaceae were scarce in aerial roots, except in the traditional cultivation in the forest understory.These results shed light on the geographical origins of mycorrhizal fungi of cultivated vanillas in La Réunion and show that they form a pool of both locally and globally distributed fungal partners. These mycorrhizal communities vary according to cultivation practices, and their potential roles in plant nutrition and resistance against pathogens await further attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Camellia oleifera is a woody, edible-oil plant native to China. Anthracnose is the major disease of Ca. oleifera, and Colletotrichum fructicola is the main epidemic pathogen. Our previous research indicated that CfHac1 (homologous to ATF/CREB1) and CfGcn5 (general control nonderepressible 5, Gcn5) are integral to key cellular processes that govern fungal development and pathogenesis. Further transcriptomic analyses of the CfHac1 and CfGcn5 mutants, particularly under conditions of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, hold the potential to unveil additional genes implicated in this critical cellular response. We identified all OST/PMT (oligosaccharyltransferase/Protein O-Mannosyltransferases) genes in C. fructicola and analyzed their expression levels. To elucidate novel glycosylation-related genes that may be important for the virulence of C. fructicola, we took an unbiased transcriptomic approach comparing wild-type and the ∆Cfhac1 mutant. Notably, all OST/PMT genes were induced by dithiothreitol and down-regulated in the ΔCfhac1 mutant, yet only the CfPMT4 (Protein O-Mannosyltransferases 4) gene (A04626) was unaffected in the ΔCfgcn5. The results of targeted gene deletion experiments indicate that CfPMT4 plays a crucial role in both vegetative growth and conidiation. Additionally, our investigation revealed that the ΔCfpmt4 exhibits deficiencies in appressorium formation, as well as in its response to cell wall integrity and endoplasmic reticulum stresses. Furthermore, the mutant displayed impaired glycogen metabolism, which may contribute to reduced penetration ability. Overall, CfPmt4, an O-mannosyltransferase, controls the growth, development, and pathogenicity of Colletotrichum fructicola. Understanding the function of the CfPMT4 homolog could provide a potential molecular target for controlling Ca. oleifera anthracnose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The greater yam (Dioscorea alata), a widely cultivated and nutritious food crop, suffers from widespread yield reduction due to anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Latent infection often occurs before anthracnose phenotypes can be detected, making early prevention difficult and causing significant harm to agricultural production. Through comparative genomic analysis of 60 genomes of 38 species from the Colletotrichum genus, this study identified 17 orthologous gene groups (orthogroups) that were shared by all investigated C. gloeosporioides strains but absent from all other Colletotrichum species. Four of the 17 C. gloeosporioides-specific orthogroups were used as molecular markers for PCR primer designation and C. gloeosporioides detection. All of them can specifically detect C. gloeosporioides out of microbes within and beyond the Colletotrichum genus with different sensitivities. To establish a rapid, portable, and operable anthracnose diagnostic method suitable for field use, specific recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) primer probe combinations were designed, and a lateral flow (LF)-RPA detection kit for C. gloeosporioides was developed, with the sensitivity reaching the picogram (pg) level. In conclusion, this study identified C. gloeosporioides-specific molecular markers and developed an efficient method for C. gloeosporioides detection, which can be applied to the prevention and control of yam anthracnose as well as anthracnose caused by C. gloeosporioides in other crops. The strategy adopted by this study also serves as a reference for the identification of molecular markers and diagnosis of other plant pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phaseolus vulgaris L. , commonly known as the common bean, is a highly nutritious crop often called the "poor man's meat". However, it is susceptible to various diseases throughout the cropping season, with anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum being a significant threat that leads to substantial losses. There is still a lack of understanding about the molecular basis of C. lindemuthianum pathogenicity. The first step in understanding this is to identify pathogenicity genes that express more during infection of common beans. A reverse transcription quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) method can be used for virulence gene expression. However, this approach requires selecting appropriate reference genes to normalize relative gene expression data. Currently, there is no reference gene available for C. lindemuthianum. In this study, we selected eight candidate reference genes from the available genome of C. lindemuthianum to bridge the gap. These genes were ACT (Actin), β-tub (β-tubulin), EF (Elongation Factor), Cyt C (Cytochrome C), His H3 (Histone H3), CHS1 (Chitin synthetase), GAPDH (Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase) and abfA (Alpha- l -Arabinofuranosidase A). The primers for these candidate reference genes were able to amplify cDNA only from the pathogen, demonstrating their specificity. The qPCR efficiency of the primers ranged from 80% to 103%. We analyzed the stability of gene expression in C. lindemuthianum by exposing the mycelium to nine different stress conditions. We employed algorithms, such as GeNorm, NormFinder, BestKeeper, and RefFinder tools, to identify the most stable gene. The analysis using these tools revealed that EF , GAPDH , and β-tub most stable genes, while ACT and CHS1 showed relatively low expression stability. A large number of potential effector genes have been identified through bioinformatics analysis in C. lindemuthianum. The stable genes for qPCR (EF and GAPDH) discovered in this study will aid the scientific community in determining the relative expression of C. lindemuthianum effector genes. • Gene expression investigations are hampered by the lack of reference genes in C. lindemuthianum. • We provide the list of qPCR genes that can be used to perform expression analysis of genes in C. lindemuthianum. • We identified EF and GAPDH as the most stable genes. • Our results will aid the scientific community in determining the relative expression of C. lindemuthianum effector genes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum is the most severe and widely occurring cashew disease in Brazil. Colletotrichum species are commonly found as pathogens, endophytes and occasionally as saprophytes in a wide range of hosts. The endophytic species associated with cashew trees are poorly studied. In this study, we report the Colletotrichum endophytic species associated with cashew trees in two locations in the state of Pernambuco, their prevalence in different plant organs (leaves, veins, branches and inflorescences), and compare the species in terms of pathogenicity and aggressiveness using different inoculation methods (wounded × unwounded). Six species of Colletotrichum were identified according to multilocus phylogenetic analyses, including Colletotrichum asianum, Colletotrichum chrysophilum, Colletotrichum karsti, Colletotrichum siamense, Colletotrichum theobromicola, and Colletotrichum tropicale. There were differences in the percentage of isolation in relation to the prevalence of colonized tissues and collection locations. C. tropicale was the prevalent species in both geographic areas and plant tissues collected, with no pattern of distribution of species between areas and plant tissues. All isolates were pathogenic in injured tissues of cashew plants. The best method to test the pathogenicity of Colletotrichum species was utilizing the combination of leaves + presence of wounds + conidial suspension, as it better represents the natural infection process. C. siamense was the most aggressive species. • Colletotrichum colonizes cashew organs at different rates. • Six Colletotrichum species were found as endophytes in cashew trees in Brazil. • Colletotrichum tropicale is the prevalent species. • Inoculation on leaves + wounds + conidial suspension is the best method to access Colletotrichum pathogenicity. • Colletotrichum siamense was the most aggressive species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims Neocosmospora species are saprobes, endophytes, and pathogens belonging to the family Nectriaceae. This study aims to investigate the taxonomy, biosynthetic potential, and application of three newly isolated Neocosmospora species from mangrove habitats in the southern part of Thailand using phylogeny, bioactivity screening, genome sequencing, and bioinformatics analysis. Methods and results Detailed descriptions, illustrations, and a multi-locus phylogenetic tree with large subunit ribosomal DNA (LSU), internal transcribed spacer (ITS), translation elongation factor 1-alpha (ef1-α), and RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (RPB2) regions showing the placement of three fungal strains, MFLUCC 17–0253, MFLUCC 17–0257, and MFLUCC 17–0259 clustered within the Neocosmospora clade with strong statistical support. Fungal crude extracts of the new species N. mangrovei MFLUCC 17–0253 exhibited strong antifungal activity to control Colletotrichum truncatum CG-0064, while N. ferruginea MFLUCC 17–0259 exhibited only moderate antifungal activity toward C. acutatum CC-0036. Thus, N. mangrovei MFLUCC 17–0253 was sequenced by Oxford nanopore technology. The bioinformatics analysis revealed that 49.17 Mb genome of this fungus harbors 41 potential biosynthetic gene clusters. Conclusion Two fungal isolates of Neocosmospora and a new species of N. mangrovei were reported in this study. These fungal strains showed activity against pathogenic fungi causing anthracnose in chili. In addition, full genome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis of N. mangrovei MFLUCC 17–0253 were obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungal cell walls represent the frontline contact with the host and play a prime role in pathogenesis. While the roles of the cell wall polymers like chitin and branched β‐glucan are well understood in vegetative and pathogenic development, that of the most prominent galactose‐containing polymers galactosaminogalactan and fungal‐type galactomannan is unknown in plant pathogenic fungi. Mining the genome of the maize pathogen Colletotrichum graminicola identified the single‐copy key galactose metabolism genes UGE1 and UGM1, encoding a UDP‐glucose‐4‐epimerase and UDP‐galactopyranose mutase, respectively. UGE1 is thought to be required for biosynthesis of both polymers, whereas UGM1 is specifically required for fungal‐type galactomannan formation. Promoter:eGFP fusion strains revealed that both genes are expressed in vegetative and in pathogenic hyphae at all stages of pathogenesis. Targeted deletion of UGE1 and UGM1, and fluorescence‐labeling of galactosaminogalactan and fungal‐type galactomannan confirmed that Δuge1 mutants were unable to synthesize either of these polymers, and Δugm1 mutants did not exhibit fungal‐type galactomannan. Appressoria of Δuge1, but not of Δugm1 mutants, were defective in adhesion, highlighting a function of galactosaminogalactan in the establishment of these infection cells on hydrophobic surfaces. Both Δuge1 and Δugm1 mutants showed cell wall defects in older vegetative hyphae and severely reduced appressorial penetration competence. On intact leaves of Zea mays, both mutants showed strongly reduced disease symptom severity, indicating that UGE1 and UGM1 represent novel virulence factors of C. graminicola. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The postharvest antifungal activity of potassium carbonate (PC) against crown rot (CR) was investigated in banana cv. Enano Gigante by artificially inoculating with Colletotrichum musae (Cm) and incubating at 25 ± 1°C for 7 days. PC treatments were tested by in vitro and in vivo primary experiments. The in vivo preliminary concentration of 175 mM PC was selected as the most effective and was used in subsequent experiments on the influence of dip temperature on the effectiveness of PC. Curative dip treatments of 175 mM PC at 40°C for 20 min applied alone or combined with low doses of thiabendazole (TBZ) were evaluated on CR. Finally, the effect of PC on banana fruit quality was determined. PC at 150 and 200 mM totally inhibited mycelial growth and conidial germination of Cm. In in vivo primary experiments, 175 mM PC significantly reduced both the incidence (33.3% reduction) and the severity (90.5% reduction) of CR, but only in curative treatments. When the 175 mM PC dip for 20 min was tested at different temperatures, the curative dip at 40°C was the most effective, reducing CR incidence and severity by 91.6% and 98.8%, respectively, and was used for subsequent experiments. PC combined with TBZ at 225 μL L−1 did not improve the curative control effectiveness on CR compared to PC alone. PC did not affect the quality of banana fruit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Many phytopathogens secrete a large number of cell wall degrading enzymes (CWDEs) to decompose host cell walls in order to penetrate the host, obtain nutrients and accelerate colonization. There is a wide variety of CWDEs produced by plant pathogens, including glycoside hydrolases (GHs), which determine the virulence, pathogenicity, and host specificity of phytopathogens. The specific molecular mechanisms by which pathogens suppress host immunity remain obscure. Result: In this study, we found that CgEC124 encodes a glycosyl hydrolase with a signal peptide and a conserved Glyco_hydro_cc domain which belongs to glycoside hydrolase 128 family. The expression of CgEC124 was significantly induced in the early stage of Colletotrichum graminicola infection, especially at 12 hpi. Furthermore, CgEC124 positively regulated the pathogenicity, but it did not impact the vegetative growth of mycelia. Ecotopic transient expression of CgEC124 decreased the disease resistance and callose deposition in maize. Moreover, CgEC124 exhibited the β-1,3-glucanase activity and suppresses glucan-induced ROS burst in maize leaves. Conclusions: Our results indicate that CgEC124 is required for full virulence of C. graminicola but not for vegetative growth. CgEC124 increases maize susceptibility by inhibiting host reactive oxygen species burst as well as callose deposition. Meanwhile, our data suggests that CgEC124 explores its β-1,3-glucanase activity to prevent induction of host defenses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colletotrichum is an important plant pathogenic fungi that causes anthracnose/-twister disease in onion. This disease was prevalent in the monsoon season from August to November months and the symptoms were observed in most of the fields. This study aimed to investigate the pathogenicity and cumulative effect, if any of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Fusarium acutatum. The pot experiment was laid out to identify the cause responsible for inciting anthracnose-twister disease, whether the Colletotrichum or Fusarium or both, or the interaction of pathogens and GA3. The results of the pathogenicity test confirmed that C. gloeosporioides and F. acutatum are both pathogenic. C. gloeosporioides caused twisting symptoms independently, while F.acutatum independently caused only neck elongation. The independent application of GA3 did not produce any symptoms, however, increased the plant height. The combined treatment of C. gloeosporioides and F. acutatum caused twisting, which enhanced upon interaction with GA3 application giving synergistic effect. The acervuli were found in lesions infected with C. gloeosporioides after 8 days of inoculation on the neck and leaf blades. Symptoms were not observed in untreated control plants. Koch's postulates were confirmed by reisolating the same pathogens from the infected plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton, an annual plant in the mint family, is considered invasive in the United States where it excludes native vegetation in natural areas and can cause respiratory illness in livestock. An effective biological control agent would improve perilla management, but none have been developed or proposed. This study investigated the biocontrol potential of a fungal pathogen, Colletotrichum shisoi, recently found infecting perilla in North America. The growth rates and morphology of seven Colletotrichum shisoi isolates were recorded. A virulence assay was performed on two perilla accessions, and the number and size of foliar lesions produced were used to select a single isolate, Colletotrichum shisoi isolate 21-072, exhibiting consistently high virulence for further evaluation of biocontrol efficacy and host specificity. Treatment with 0.5 mL of 1 × 107 spores/mL H2O caused a 52% reduction in shoot height and 84% reduction in root length of invasive perilla seedlings compared to a control treatment (P < 0.001). Seedlings treated with 1 × 108 spores/mL had a 100% mortality rate. Formulation of inoculum in a 1:1 water:oil emulsion reduced dew period requirements for causing >50% plant mortality from 48 to 24 h, but oil emulsions exhibited a mild phytotoxic effect on seedlings. Four additional perilla accessions were susceptible to C. shisoi, and none of 34 other species included in host range experiments developed disease symptoms following inoculation. These results suggest C. shisoi 21-072 could be an effective antagonist of perilla and likely poses a low risk of non-target impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colletotrichum fructicola is the major pathogen of anthracnose in tea-oil trees in China. Control of anthracnose in tea-oil trees mainly depends on the application of chemical fungicides such as carbendazim. However, the current sensitivity of C. fructicola isolates in tea-oil trees to carbendazim has not been reported. Here, we tested the sensitivity of 121 C. fructicola isolates collected from Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan, Hunan, Jiangsu, and Jiangxi provinces in China to carbendazim. One hundred and ten isolates were sensitive to carbendazim, and 11 isolates were highly resistant to carbendazim. The growth rates, morphology, and pathogenicity of three resistant isolates were identical to those of three sensitive isolates, which indicates that these resistant isolates could form a resistant population under carbendazim application. These results suggest that carbendazim should not be the sole fungicide in control of anthracnose in tea-oil trees; other fungicides with different mechanisms of action or mixtures of fungicides could be considered. In addition, bioinformatics analysis identified two β-tubulin isotypes in C. fructicola: Cfβ1tub and Cfβ2tub. E198A mutation was discovered in the Cfβ2tub of three carbendazim-resistant isolates. We also investigated the functional roles of two β-tubulin isotypes. CfΔβ1tub exhibited slightly increased sensitivity to carbendazim and normal phenotypes. Surprisingly, CfΔβ2tub was highly resistant to carbendazim and showed a seriously decreased growth rate, conidial production, pathogenicity, and abnormal hyphae morphology. Promoter replacement mutant CfΔβ2-2×β1 showed partly restored phenotypes, but it was still highly resistant to carbendazim, which suggests that Cfβ1tub and Cfβ2tub are functionally interchangeable to a certain degree. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Apple Glomerella leaf spot (GLS) is an emerging fungal disease caused by Colletotrichum fructicola and other Colletotrichum species. These species are polyphyletic and it is currently unknown how these pathogens convergently evolved to infect apple. We generated chromosome‐level genome assemblies of a GLS‐adapted isolate and a non‐adapted isolate in C. fructicola using long‐read sequencing. Additionally, we resequenced 17 C. fructicola and C. aenigma isolates varying in GLS pathogenicity using short‐read sequencing. Genome comparisons revealed a conserved bipartite genome architecture involving minichromosomes (accessory chromosomes) shared by C. fructicola and other closely related species within the C. gloeosporioides species complex. Moreover, two repeat‐rich genomic regions (1.61 Mb in total) were specifically conserved among GLS‐pathogenic isolates in C. fructicola and C. aenigma. Single‐gene deletion of 10 accessory genes within the GLS‐specific regions of C. fructicola identified three that were essential for GLS pathogenicity. These genes encoded a putative non‐ribosomal peptide synthetase, a flavin‐binding monooxygenase and a small protein with unknown function. These results highlight the crucial role accessory genes play in the evolution of Colletotrichum pathogenicity and imply the significance of an unidentified secondary metabolite in GLS pathogenesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Nanotechnology is emerging approach, which involves the process of reduction of bulk material into nano size particles. Metal based and green based particles can be used in crop management against disease causing pathogens. This study focuses on synthesis of nanoparticles to evaluate its effect on Colletotrichum truncatum that causes pod blight disease in soybean crop. Methods: In this study, green nanoformulation namely, Chitosan based zinc oxide nanoformulation (ChZnNF), P. fluorescens based zinc nanoformulation (PfZnNF), Pomegranate aril-based Sulphur (PASNF) and Pomegranate aril-based silver nano formulations (PAAgNF) were synthesised through irradiation method. These nanoformulations were evaluated against C. truncatum through in vitro technique using poison food technique. The effective concentration of each formulation was also evaluated against C. Truncatum challenge inoculated soybean plants (two varieties). Per cent disease index in the glasshouse condition was recorded. Result: In the in vitro analysis, it was found that among the four nanoformulations, PAAgNF was found to be the effective one to inhibit the mycelial growth of C. truncatum with per cent inhibition of 84.71. In the glasshouse study, PAAgNF did not record any disease symptoms besides no record of phytotoxicity symptoms. Thus the outcome indicated that PAAgNF is the effective green nanoformulation against C. truncatum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pecan (Carya illinoinensis) is one important exotic forest crop cultivated in South America, specifically in Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. However, diseases such as anthracnose, favored by high humidity conditions and high summer temperatures, make its cultivation difficult, causing important loss to pecan farmers. This study used morphological and molecular approaches to identify the Colletotrichum species causing anthracnose in pecan plantations in Southern Brazil. The isolates obtained from pecan fruits with anthracnose symptoms were grouped through quantitative morphological characteristics into three distinct morphotypes. Molecular analysis of nuclear genes allowed the identification of six species of Colletotrichum causing anthracnose in pecan: C. nymphaeae, C. fioriniae, C. gloeosporioides, C. siamense, C. kahawae, and C. karsti. Three of these species are reported for the first time as causal agents of anthracnose in pecan. Therefore, these results provide an important basis for the adoption and/or development of anthracnose management strategies in pecan orchards cultivated in southern Brazil and neighboring countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Endophytes are the beneficial group of plant symbionts and are potent sources for producing novel metabolites with biotechnological applications. They are efficient sources for the synthesis of plant growth-promoting substances-Indole acetic acid, ammonia, solubilizing phosphates and thus open up sustainable agricultural opportunities. In the present investigation, twenty-two fungal endophytes were isolated from an ethnomedicinal plant-Helicteres isora L., collected from forests of Singbhum, Jhargram, India, and the isolate-Colletotrichum sp. HelS1, exhibited the most potent in vitro plant growth-promoting activities among all. HelS1 synthesized auxin (111.13 μg ml-1), ammonia, and solubilized phosphate (47.22 μg ml-1) in specific culture conditions. A treatment with fungal extract effectively increases the growth of the experimental plant (tomato seedlings) in terms of improvement in relative water contents, dry weight, nodal length, and pigment profiles compared to the untreated ones. There was an increase in root length by 27% compared to the control group. The isolate produced the maximum IAA after 7 days of incubation on Czepak Dox Broth supplemented with tryptophan (5 mg mL-1), sucrose (30 g L-1), and NaNO3 (2.2 g L-1) at pH 6.2. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopic analysis of the crude fungal extract further confirmed the production of indole-like compounds. This investigation suggested that secondary metabolites of endophytes act as a potent plant growth inducer and can be utilized in bio-based crop management techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Similar to cacao pod rot, cherelle wilt decreases production from cacao fields. Among all known fungal pathogens of the cacao, Colletotrichum spp. are common infectious agents that affect the cherelles and pods of cacao; thus, cacao diseases are often classified by stage. Therefore, knowing whether these pathogens are common in both fruit stages is necessary for implementing disease control measures. Symptoms of cherelle wilt were found in cacao plants in Pangasinan, Philippines, in 2022. The fungal strain obtained from the lesion was found to be pathogenic towards cherelles, but not towards pods. The strain was classified as an unknown species belonging to the gigasporum species complex, based on the morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses of ITS, GAPDH, CHS1, ACT, and TUB2. We propose Colletotrichum kapreanum sp. nov. as a causal agent of cacao cherelle wilt, but not pod rot. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colletotrichum coccodes (Wallr.) Hughes is an asexual fungus with five vegetative compatibility groups. It was postulated that C. coccodes was isolated at the center of origin of potato at one time, and due to the movement of potato around the globe, the fungus was established on each continent but became bottlenecked and genetically unable to form stable heterokaryons via vegetative compatibility grouping (VCG) studies. The objectives of this study were (i) to determine if the VCGs around the world are related to the VCGs in Chile, (ii) to determine the diversity of C. coccodes populations in Chile, and (iii) to find any evidence for a cryptic sexual life cycle for this fungus. Worldwide C. coccodes populations have been found to be genetically correlated and belong to one or more C. coccodes-identified VCGs. The most distributed VCG in Chile was VCG2, which is the most common VCG in North America. We hypothesize that one or more VCGs had spread from Chile to the rest of the world. Precautions and further studies should be investigated by using other molecular markers and gene sequencing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species of Colletotrichum are common pathogens that cause loquat fruit rot in Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan. For clarifying the site of infection and the Colletotrichum species responsible for anthracnose in loquat trees, fungi were isolated from asymptomatic flowers and rotten fruits and identified to the species rank based on morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses. Nineteen isolates from 148 rotten fruits were identified as C. fioriniae (12 isolates), C. nymphaeae (2 isolates), C. gloeosporioides s. s. (1 isolate), and four unidentified species of Colletotrichum. From 900 asymptomatic flowers, C. fioriniae (5 isolates), C. gloeosporioides s. s. (1 isolate), C. siamense (2 isolates), an unknown species (11 isolates) belonging to the C. acutatum species complex, and 2 were Colletotrichum spp. All isolates were pathogenic on wounded leaves and fruits. These results imply that C. fioriniae and C. gloeosporioides s. s. infect flowers and cause loquat fruit rot after maturation. However, the pathogenicity of the other species remains unclear as does the reason for the differences in the composition and proportions of fungal species in fruits and flowers. Eleven isolates obtained from asymptomatic flowers that also cause anthracnose disease in loquat were identified as a novel species of Colletotrichum, which was named C. nagasakiense sp. nov. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colletotrichum scovillei, a member of the Colletotrichum acutatum species complex, causes severe anthracnose of pepper fruit, reducing yield and quality. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying its pathogenesis are unknown. Ste7 kinase in the Fus3/Kss1-related mitogen protein kinase signaling pathway plays an important role in plant infection by phytopathogenic fungi. In this study, the function of CsSTE7, an ortholog of Ste7, was investigated in C. scovillei using a targeted gene deletion mutant (ΔCsste7). Compared to the wild type, ΔCsste7 had normal mycelial growth, but conidial morphology, germination of conidia, and tolerance to cell wall integrity and osmotic stresses were defective. Importantly, ΔCsste7 was completely defective in appressorium formation and causing anthracnose on pepper fruits. These defects were restored in the complemented strain (Csste7c). The results suggest that CsSTE7 is essential for development and pathogenicity of C. scovillei. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY: Tea plant [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze], as one of the most important commercial crops, frequently suffers from anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum camelliae. The plant‐specific tau (U) class of glutathione S‐transferases (GSTU) participates in ROS homeostasis. Here, we identified a plant‐specific GST tau class gene from tea plant, CsGSTU45, which is induced by various stresses, including C. camelliae infection, by analyzing multiple transcriptomes. CsGSTU45 plays a negative role in disease resistance against C. camelliae by accumulating H2O2. JA negatively regulates the resistance of tea plants against C. camelliae, which depends on CsGSTU45. CsMYC2.2, which is the key regulator in the JA signaling pathway, directly binds to and activates the promoter of CsGSTU45. Furthermore, silencing CsMYC2.2 increased disease resistance associated with reduced transcript and protein levels of CsGSTU45, and decreased contents of H2O2. Therefore, CsMYC2.2 suppresses disease resistance against C. camelliae by binding to the promoter of the CsGSTU45 gene and activating CsGSTU45. CsJAZ1 interacts with CsMYC2.2. Silencing CsJAZ1 attenuates disease resistance, upregulates the expression of CsMYC2.2 elevates the level of the CsGSTU45 protein, and promotes the accumulation of H2O2. As a result, CsJAZ1 interacts with CsMYC2.2 and acts as its repressor to suppress the level of CsGSTU45 protein, eventually enhancing disease resistance in tea plants. Taken together, the results show that the JA signaling pathway mediated by CsJAZ1‐CsMYC2.2 modulates tea plant susceptibility to C. camelliae by regulating CsGSTU45 to accumulate H2O2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chestnut nut rots caused by fungi, especially by Gnomoniopsis smithogilvyi, showed a significant increase not only in Turkey but also in the other chestnut‐producing countries. In this study, the prevalence of chestnut kernel rot was determined by using 800 fruits collected from eight significant chestnut‐growing provinces of Turkey located in the Black Sea, Marmara, and Aegean Regions. Six types of kernel rot symptoms were determined from the necrotic nuts, brown rot being the most common accounting for 62% of the necrotic nuts. Along with G. smithogilvyi, seven additional fungal species Colletotrichum fioriniae, C. godetiae, Cryphonectria parasitica, Diplodina agrifoliae, Fusarium concentricum, Fusarium tricinctum, and Trichothecium roseum were found to be associated with kernel rot. In addition, some other ubiquitous fungi such as Penicillium spp. were detected. All the pathogenic fungi were identified through a combination of morphological traits and phylogenetic analysis involving partial internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences, as well as tef1 and tub2 loci sequences. The most frequently isolated fungus was G. smithogilvyi, and it was found at 98, 31, 10, and 1 of the necrotic kernels out of 291 showing brown rot, brown to black rot, cream colour decay, and white rot symptoms, respectively. It was not found from the kernels showing green rot and greenly‐blue rot symptoms. G. smithogilvyi was prevalent in six of eight chestnut‐growing locations in Turkey. Based on the findings, G. smithogilvyi was shown to be the main fungal agent of brown kernel rot of chestnuts, and some of the other fungi obtained from the kernels were shown to contribute kernel rots of chestnuts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In September 2022, symptoms of leaf anthracnose were observed on desert rose (Adenium obesum) plants distributed in parks and gardens in Culiacán, Sinaloa, Mexico. Two morphotypes of Colletotrichum isolates were obtained from symptomatic tissues. Based on morphological characterization in combination with multilocus phylogenetic analyses including data from internal transcribed spacer, actin, glyceraldehyde‐3‐phosphate dehydrogenase, and β‐tubulin, and pathogenicity tests, it was confirmed that C. siamense and C. truncatum are the causal agents of the disease. This is the first report of C. siamense and C. truncatum causing leaf anthracnose in desert rose worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural rubber is an important national strategic and industrial raw material. The leaf anthracnose of rubber trees caused by the Colletotrichum species is one of the important factors restricting the yields of natural rubber. In this study, we isolated and identified strain Bacillus velezensis SF334, which exhibited significant antagonistic activity against both C. australisinense and C. siamense, the dominant species of Colletotrichum causing rubber tree leaf anthracnose in the Hainan province of China, from a pool of 223 bacterial strains. The cell suspensions of SF334 had a significant prevention effect for the leaf anthracnose of rubber trees, with an efficacy of 79.67% against C. siamense and 71.8% against C. australisinense. We demonstrated that SF334 can lead to the lysis of C. australisinense and C. siamense mycelia by causing mycelial expansion, resulting in mycelial rupture and subsequent death. B. velezensis SF334 also harbors some plant probiotic traits, such as secreting siderophore, protease, cellulase, pectinase, and the auxin of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and it has broad-spectrum antifungal activity against some important plant pathogenic fungi. The genome combined with comparative genomic analyses indicated that SF334 possesses most genes of the central metabolic and gene clusters of secondary metabolites in B. velezensis strains. To our knowledge, this is the first time a Bacillus velezensis strain has been reported as a promising biocontrol agent against the leaf anthracnose of rubber trees caused by C. siamense and C. australisinense. The results suggest that B. velezensis could be a potential candidate agent for the leaf anthracnose of rubber trees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hemibiotrophic fungal pathogen Colletotrichum sublineola is the causal agent of anthracnose in sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), resulting in leaf blight, stalk rot, and head blight in susceptible genotypes, with yield losses of up to 50%. The development of anthracnose-resistant cultivars can reduce reliance on fungicides and provide a more sustainable and economical means for disease management. A previous genome-wide association study of the sorghum association panel identified the candidate resistance gene Sobic.005G172300 encoding an F-box protein. To better understand the role of this gene in the defense against C. sublineola, gene expression following infection with C. sublineola was monitored by RNA sequencing in seedlings of sorghum accession SC110, which harbored the resistance allele, and three accessions that harbored a susceptible allele. Only in SC110 did the expression of Sobic.005G172300 increase during the biotrophic phase of infection. Subsequent transcriptome analysis, gene co-expression networks, and gene regulatory networks of inoculated and mock-inoculated seedlings of resistant and susceptible accessions suggest that the increase in expression of Sobic.005G172300 induces an oxidative burst by lowering the concentration of ascorbic acid during the biotrophic phase of infection. Based on gene regulatory network analysis, the protein encoded by Sobic.005G172300 is proposed to target proteins involved in the biosynthesis of ascorbic acid for polyubiquitination through the SCF E3 ubiquitin ligase, causing their degradation via the proteasome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Monoterpenes are the most prevalent compounds found in essential oils. They exhibit inhibitory actions against phytopathogenic postharvest fungi. Direct application limits their effectiveness due to their instability, high volatility, hydrophobicity and susceptibility to degradation. Encapsulation systems using metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have been developed to maximise their use. In this study, four protocols were shown to encapsulate thymol and limonene in porous solids, such as ZIF‐8, UiO‐66‐(COOH)2 and zeolite 13X. Vapourisation and diffusion at 60 °C for 16 h was found to be the most efficient encapsulation process. A larger amount of thymol than limonene was loaded in the porous solids. Thymol released from MOFs slowed down the growth of Colletotrichum musae by up to 6 days at 25 °C. There was a sustained release of thymol even beyond the period of maximum fungal growth. This proof‐of‐concept study revealed the potential utility of MOFs as carriers of thymol against postharvest fungi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an effort to control anthracnose disease, one of the major problems that has been faced by farmers, 14 chilli hybrids and their parents were screened phenotypically using the fruit inoculation method under laboratory conditions. Genotypic screening of 14 chilli hybrids and their parents was done by the identified polymorphic markers, HpmsE 051 and HpmsE 082. Based on the phenotypic and genotypic data, chilli hybrids, H1, H2, H3, H4, H6, H7, H8, H9, H11 and H12 were identified as resistant chilli hybrids against anthracnose disease caused by the C. truncatum. Molecular markers, HpmsE 051 and HpmsE 082 could be utilized as polymorphic markers to isolate resistant genotypes against C. truncatum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genomes of species belonging to the genus Colletotrichum harbor a substantial number of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYPs) encoded by a broad diversity of gene families. However, the biological role of their CYP complement (CYPome) has not been elucidated. Here, we investigated the putative evolutionary scenarios that occurred during the evolution of the CYPome belonging to the Colletotrichum Graminicola species complex (s.c.) and their biological implications. The study revealed that most of the CYPome gene families belonging to the Graminicola s.c. experienced gene contractions. The reductive evolution resulted in species restricted CYPs are predominant in each CYPome of members from the Graminicola s.c., whereas only 18 families are absolutely conserved among these species. However, members of CYP families displayed a notably different phylogenetic relationship at the tertiary structure level, suggesting a putative convergent evolution scenario. Most of the CYP enzymes of the Graminicola s.c. share redundant functions in secondary metabolite biosynthesis and xenobiotic metabolism. Hence, this current work suggests that the presence of a broad CYPome in the genus Colletotrichum plays a critical role in the optimization of the colonization capability and virulence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genomes of species belonging to the genus Colletotrichum harbor a substantial number of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (CYPs) encoded by a broad diversity of gene families. However, the biological role of their CYP complement (CYPome) has not been elucidated. Here, we investigated the putative evolutionary scenarios that occurred during the evolution of the CYPome belonging to the Colletotrichum Graminicola species complex (s.c.) and their biological implications. The study revealed that most of the CYPome gene families belonging to the Graminicola s.c. experienced gene contractions. The reductive evolution resulted in species restricted CYPs are predominant in each CYPome of members from the Graminicola s.c., whereas only 18 families are absolutely conserved among these species. However, members of CYP families displayed a notably different phylogenetic relationship at the tertiary structure level, suggesting a putative convergent evolution scenario. Most of the CYP enzymes of the Graminicola s.c. share redundant functions in secondary metabolite biosynthesis and xenobiotic metabolism. Hence, this current work suggests that the presence of a broad CYPome in the genus Colletotrichum plays a critical role in the optimization of the colonization capability and virulence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pear anthracnose, caused by the fungus Colletotrichum fructicola, is a devastating disease for the pear industry. The apoplast, an extracellular compartment outside the plasma membrane, plays a crucial role in water and nutrient transport, as well as plant-microbe interactions. This study aimed to uncover the molecular mechanism of pear leaf apoplastic protein-mediated resistance to C. fructicola. Apoplast fluid was isolated using the vacuum infiltration method, and defence-related apoplastic proteins were identified through protein mass spectrometry and transcriptome sequencing. We found 213 apoplastic proteins in the leaf apoplast fluid during early C. fructicola infection, with the majority (74.64%) being enzymes, including glycosidases, proteases, and oxidoreductases. Gene Ontology analysis revealed their involvement in defence response, enzyme inhibition, carbohydrate metabolism, and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. Transcriptome analysis showed the infection induced expression of certain apoplast proteins, potentially contributing to pear leaf resistance. Notably, the expression of PbrGlu1, an endo-β-1,3-glucanase from the glycoside hydrolase 17 family, was significantly higher in infected leaves. Silencing of the PbrGlu1 gene increased pear leaf susceptibility to C. fructicola, leading to more severe symptoms and higher reactive oxygen species content. Overall, our study provides insights into the apoplast space interaction between pear leaves and C. fructicola, identifies a key gene in infected pears, and offers a foundation and new strategy for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying pear anthracnose and breeding disease-resistant pears. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infectious diseases are a global challenge today. One preventive measure is to maintain and improve humans’ immunity. Many people consume sungkai, a medicinal plant that is believed to cut down the exposure of severe covid-19 because it is related to antioxidant and antibacterial activity. This research investigated the antioxidant and antimicrobe agents of fungal endophyte extracts from the stem bark of sungkai. Endophytic fungal was isolated from the fresh tissue of the stem bark of sungkai and identified morphologically. The antioxidant of the endophytic fungi extract was tested with the DPPH, and antibacterial agent was tested by using the paper disc diffusion method. Molecular identification of endophytic fungi was done to extract that showed the most potential antioxidant and antibacterial activity. The pure compounds were isolated by chromatographic techniques. Structural determinations of the compounds were accomplished using a spectroscopic method, comprising 1D and 2D NMR. Twenty isolates of fungal endophyte were found residing in the stem bark of sungkai, specifically RB1-RB20. Isolates RB4 and RB6 showed the most potential antioxidant and antibacterial activity and were identified molecularly. The results of molecular identification showed that RB4 and RB6 were Curvularia intermedia and Colletotrichum cliviicola. Based on the spectroscopic analysis, the compounds identified from the two fungi were the different compound, specifically 3-hydroxy-4(hydroxy(4-hydroxyphenyl)methyl)-ɣ-butyrolactone (1) and 5-hydroxy-4-(hydroxymethyl)-2H-pyran-2-on (2). Compound 1 and 2 showed antibacterial and antioxidant in strong to moderate. These compounds and the endophytic fungi extract can be used as a new ingredient for medicine because it has antioxidant and antibacterial activity with further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colletotrichum lini is a flax fungal pathogen. The genus comprises differently virulent strains, leading to significant yield losses. However, there were no attempts to investigate the molecular mechanisms of C. lini pathogenicity from high-quality genome assemblies until this study. In this work, we sequenced the genomes of three C. lini strains of high (#390-1), medium (#757), and low (#771) virulence. We obtained more than 100× genome coverage with Oxford Nanopore Technologies reads (N50 = 12.1, 6.1, 5.0 kb) and more than 50× genome coverage with Illumina data (150 + 150 bp). Several assembly strategies were tested. The final assemblies were obtained using the Canu–Racon ×2–Medaka–Polca scheme. The assembled genomes had a size of 54.0–55.3 Mb, 26–32 contigs, N50 values > 5 Mb, and BUSCO completeness > 96%. A comparative genomic analysis showed high similarity among mitochondrial and nuclear genomes. However, a rearrangement event and the loss of a 0.7 Mb contig were revealed. After genome annotation with Funannotate, secreting proteins were selected using SignalP, and candidate effectors were predicted among them using EffectorP. The analysis of the InterPro annotations of predicted effectors revealed unique protein categories in each strain. The assembled genomes and the conducted comparative analysis extend the knowledge of the genetic diversity of C. lini and form the basis for establishing the molecular mechanisms of its pathogenicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthracnose, incited by Colletotrichum sublineola, is the most destructive foliar disease of sorghum and, under severe conditions, yield losses can exceed 80% on susceptible cultivars. The hyper-variable nature of the pathogen makes its management challenging despite the occurrence of several resistant sources. In this study, the genetic variability and pathogenicity of 140 isolates of C. sublineola, which were sequenced using restriction site-associated sequencing (RAD-Seq), resulted in 1244 quality SNPs. The genetic relationship based on the SNP data showed low to high genetic diversity based on isolates' origin. Isolates from Georgia and North Carolina were grouped into multiple clusters with some level of genetic relationships to each other. Even though some isolates from Texas formed a cluster, others clustered with isolates from Puerto Rico. The isolates from Puerto Rico showed scattered distribution, indicating the diverse nature of these isolates. A population structure and cluster analysis revealed that the genetic variation was stratified into eight populations and one admixture group. The virulence pattern of 30 sequenced isolates on 18 sorghum differential lines revealed 27 new pathotypes. SC748-5, SC112-14, and Brandes were resistant to all the tested isolates, while BTx623 was susceptible to all. Line TAM428 was susceptible to all the pathotypes, except for pathotype 26. Future use of the 18 differentials employed in this study, which contains cultivars/lines which have been used in the Americas, Asia, and Africa, could allow for better characterization of C. sublineola pathotypes at a global level, thus accelerating the development of sorghum lines with stable resistance to the anthracnose pathogen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colletotrichum spp. are ascomycete fungi and cause anthracnose disease in numerous crops of economic significance. The genomes of these fungi are distributed among ten core chromosomes and two to three minichromosomes. While the core chromosomes regulate fungal growth, development and virulence, the extent to which the minichromosomes are involved in these processes is still uncertain. Here, we discuss the minichromosomes of three hemibiotrophic Colletotrichum pathogens, i.e., C. graminicola, C. higginsianum and C. lentis. These minichromosomes are typically less than one megabase in length, characterized by containing higher repetitive DNA elements, lower GC content, higher frequency of repeat-induced point mutations (RIPMs) and sparse gene distribution. Molecular genetics and functional analyses have revealed that these pathogens harbor one conditionally dispensable minichromosome, which is dispensable for fungal growth and development but indispensable for fungal virulence on hosts. They appear to be strain-specific innovations and are highly compartmentalized into AT-rich and GC-rich blocks, resulting from RIPMs, which may help protect the conditionally dispensable minichromosomes from erosion of already scarce genes, thereby helping the Colletotrichum pathogens maintain adaptability on hosts. Overall, understanding the mechanisms underlying the conditional dispensability of these minichromosomes could lead to new strategies for controlling anthracnose disease in crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cucumber anthracnose, caused by Colletotrichum orbiculare, is controlled using fungicides, but the fungus can develop resistance. We previously showed that an ethyl acetate extract of the culture filtrate of Cercospora sp. ME202 (ME202-ECF) has fungicidal activity and inhibits the formation of anthracnose lesions caused by C. orbiculare, but we did not identity the antimicrobial compound(s) or analyze the potential to suppress disease progression. Here, we isolated and identified antifungal compounds produced by Cercospora sp. ME202 and evaluated their antifungal activity against C. orbiculare. We purified the active compound using column chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography, identified it as traversianal, a tricyclic diterpenoid aldehyde with a molecular weight of 316.4 from ME202-ECF, then determined its structure using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. In a thin layer chromatography bioassay at Rf 0.92, the isolated traversianal inhibited mycelial growth. Traversianal also inhibited conidial germination of C. orbiculare at 2–10 ppm and had fungicidal activity against conidia at 5–10 ppm after 24 h treatment. Pretreatment of cucumber leaves with 10, 20, or 30 ppm traversianal significantly suppressed lesion formation by C. orbiculare without phytotoxicity. Thus, traversianal produced by Cercospora sp. ME202 has potential as a new fungicide against C. orbiculare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colletotrichum fructicola, one of the dominant pathogens isolated from the main tea region in China, causes leaf spot in mature leaves of tea plants, affecting their growth and yield. Here, we present the draft whole‐genome sequence of the C. fructicola strain SX‐6 previously used for morphological and transcriptomic analyses. The assembly consists of 510 contigs with an estimated genome size of 56.8 Mb. A total of 15,243 predicted protein‐coding genes in the SX‐6 genome were annotated using NR, Swiss‐Prot, KEGG, KOG, TCDB, GO, PHI, DFVF, P450, SignalP and CAZy databases. We identified 833 carbohydrate‐active enzymes, 1803 secreted proteins, 79 secondary metabolite gene clusters and 576 fungal virulence factors that may be involved in the pathogenicity of this fungus. Comparative genome analyses with 25 Colletotrichum species revealed their evolutionary relationships via a constructed phylogenetic tree and identified four gene families whose genes were significantly more abundant in strain SX‐6. The resulting assembly will provide a valuable resource for further research on the gene functions of C. fructicola. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avocado production is restricted globally by the anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum species. In Thailand, anthracnose symptoms can be found on avocado leaves and fruits, and it is an important postharvest disease, reducing the shelf life of the fruits and causing huge economic losses. Avocado leaves and fruits showing anthracnose disease were collected from Chiang Rai province, located in northern Thailand, and the Colletotrichum species isolated from the samples were identified based on morphological examination and multigene phylogenetic analyses. Phylogenetic analyses using five loci (ITS, ACT, CHS‐1, GAPDH and TUB2) coupled with the morphology of 11 isolates showed that they belonged to four known species of Colletotrichum. Colletotrichum endophytica, C. fructicola and C. siamense are illustrated as new geographical records, and C. henanense is characterized as a new host record. Furthermore, the pathogenicity of these species in avocado fruits and leaves (West Indian variety) has been proven. In addition, this study provides further evidence for the synonymization of C. pandanicola and C. parvisporum with C. siamense. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Colletotrichum fructicola causes a broad range of plant diseases worldwide and secretes many candidate proteinous effectors during infection, but it remains largely unknown regarding their effects in conquering plant immunity. Here, we characterized a novel effector CfEC12 that is required for the virulence of C. fructicola. CfEC12 contains a CFEM domain and is highly expressed during the early stage of host infection. Overexpression of CfEC12 suppressed BAX‐triggered cell death, callose deposition and ROS burst in Nicotiana benthamiana. CfEC12 interacted with apple MdNIMIN2, a NIM1‐interacting (NIMIN) protein that putatively modulates NPR1 activity in response to SA signal. Transient expression and transgenic analyses showed that MdNIMIN2 was required for apple resistance to C. fructicola infection and rescued the defence reduction in NbNIMIN2‐silenced N. benthamiana, supporting a positive role in plant immunity. CfEC12 and MdNPR1 interacted with a common region of MdNIMIN2, indicating that CfEC12 suppresses the interaction between MdNIMIN2 and MdNPR1 by competitive target binding. In sum, we identified a fungal effector that targets the plant salicylic acid defence pathway to promote fungal infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hymenaea stigonocarpa, popularly known as 'jatobá' or 'jatobá‐do‐cerrado', is a native plant widely distributed across Brazilian Cerrado areas. This plant is used for urban afforestation, human and animal feeding, and industry. Foliar lesions resembling anthracnose symptoms were observed on H. stigonocarpa in natural habitats and nurseries. Microscopic examination of acervuli indicated a Colletotrichum species as the cause of the anthracnose symptoms. Based on multilocus phylogenetic analyses including data from APN2, APN2‐MAT/IGS, CAL, GAP2‐IGS, GAPDH, GS and TUB2 alongside morphological characterization and pathogenicity tests, Colletotrichum siamense was confidently identified as the causal agent of H. stignocarpa anthracnose in Brazil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthracnose, a disease primarily caused by the fungus Colletotrichum sublineola, affects sorghum production in China. However, the infection mechanisms and complex host interactions of C. sublineola remain to be elucidated. Thus, this study aimed to establish and optimize a protoplast transformation system of C. sublineola so as to lay a foundation for further research on the infection mechanisms and complex host interactions of C. sublineola. A genetic transformation system was established and optimized for C. sublineola strain HX‐5‐1 and used to introduce fluorescent reporter genes, namely, green fluorescent protein (GFP) and mCherry. Results showed that the growth of HX‐5‐1 was completely inhibited on a regenerating medium containing 300 μg mL−1 hygromycin B, indicating that hygromycin B acted as a transformant‐selective marker. HX‐5‐1 produced the highest yield of protoplasts when the mycelia were cultured for 60 h and dissolved in a 0.1% lysozyme solution (0.7 M NaCl) for 3 h. Subsequently, a 106 mL−1 protoplast solution transformed using 5 μg of plasmid DNA exhibited the highest transformation efficiency. Laser confocal microscopy showed that GFP and mCherry fluorescent signals were successfully expressed in the mycelia and spores of HX‐5‐1, indicating that they were stably inherited in the transformants and did not affect colony morphology, growth rate, or pathogenicity. In conclusion, we successfully established a genetic transformation system for C. sublineola and employed it to obtain stable fluorescent protein expression. This study may serve as a foundation for understanding the infection process of C. sublineola. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to introduce new cultivars of Capsicum frutescens L. (pepper) with resistance to anthracnose. 'UNEMAT Pedro' is characterized by its red fruits, while 'UNEMAT Malagueta Pantaneira' is hybrid with orange-red fruits. Both cultivars exhibit a semi-perennial growth cycle, a pungent fruit flavour, and high productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The process of endocytosis in plant pathogenic fungi exhibits a close correlation with the growth, differentiation, and development of mycelial cells. Colletotrichum graminicola is a fungus that is semi-living and vegetative, with the ability to infect various gramineous plants such as corn, wheat, and sorghum, resulting in anthracnose. While previous studies have extensively explored the function of secreted proteins in the pathogenic process, there is a dearth of research on endocytosis-related proteins in this context. Proteins with DPFxD motif in Aspergillus nidulans play the role of receptor-mediated endocytosis signal, which is helpful to realize the endocytosis process of fungi. Based on the DPFxD protein sequence of Aspergillus nidulans, 48 DPFxD protein sequences were identified in Colletotrichum graminicola by Blastp comparative analysis and keyword search. The characteristics of subcellular localization, signal peptide and secondary structure of the above proteins were analyzed by bioinformatics analysis tools. By analyzing the genetic relationship between DPFxD protein and homologous protein, it is clear that it has high homology with C. incanum, C. sublineola and C. tofieldiae in Colletotrichum. The research results lay a theoretical foundation for further exploring the function of DPFxD protein, and also provided important theoretical guidance for the study of other anthracnose endocytosis proteins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plasma membrane H+-ATPases (PMAs) play an important role in the pathogenicity of pathogenic fungi. Lipid droplets are important storage sites for neutral lipids in fungal conidia and hyphae and can be used by plant pathogenic fungi for infection. However, the relationship between plasma membrane H+-ATPase, lipid droplets and virulence remains unclear. Here, we characterized a plasma membrane H+-ATPase, CsPMA2, that plays a key role in lipid droplet formation, appresorial development and virulence in C. siamense. Deletion of CsPMA2 impaired C. siamense conidial size, conidial germination, appressorial development and virulence but did not affect hyphal growth. ΔCsPMA2 increased the sensitivity of C. siamense to phytic acid and oxalic acid. CsPMA2 was localized to lipids on the plasma membrane and intracellular membrane. Deletion of CsPMA2 significantly inhibited the accumulation of lipid droplets and significantly affected the contents of some species of lipids, including 12 species with decreased lipid contents and 3 species with increased lipid contents. Furthermore, low pH can inhibit CsPMA2 expression and lipid droplet accumulation. Overall, our data revealed that the plasma membrane H+-ATPase CsPMA2 is involved in the regulation of lipid droplet formation and affects appressorial development and virulence in C. siamense. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Enhancing crop nutrition though biofortification with essential minerals can, in some circumstances, increase the resistance of plants to the attack by pathogens. As a result, plants activate their defense mechanisms and produce bioactive compounds (BCs) in response. To date, there has been no investigation into the response of green bean plants fortified with magnesium (Mg) salts to the presence of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum. This research involved two Mg sources applied by the edaphic route. The pathogen was inoculated on green bean pods, and subsequent analysis was conducted on the accumulation of BCs, including total anthocyanins, total phenols, and total flavonoids, within both symptomatic and healthy tissues. Remarkably, the plant's defense system was activated, as evidenced by the significantly higher concentration of anthocyanins (p ≤ 0.05) observed in the symptomatic tissues following treatments with both MgCl2 and MgSO4. Further, green bean plants treated with MgSO4 displayed notably elevated concentrations of phenols (p ≤ 0.05) in the inoculated tissues of the pods, suggesting a plausible plant defense mechanism. The levels of BCs were considerably higher in green bean pods of the biofortified plants compared to those which were nonbiofortified. However, perhaps one of the most noteworthy findings is that there were no discernible differences between biofortified and nonbiofortified treatments in stopping anthracnose in green bean pods. These results provide valuable insights contributing to a deeper understanding of this interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Objective] The purpose of the study is to provide a scientific basis to control leaf spot disease on Salvia miltiorrhiza which happends in Zhongjiang county, Sichuan province, by identifying pathogenic fungus and screening of fungicides. [Method] The pathogen causing leaf spot disease on S. miltiorrhiza was isolated and purified by tissue separation and single spore culture, respectively. The pathogenicity of the isolate was determined according to Koch's rule and morphological characteristics were observed. The rDNA-ITS sequence primer ITSl/ ITS4, ACT (actin) and GDPH (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase) genes were used for molecule biology identification. Five fungicides were used to determine the inhibition effect on that pathogen, and the toxicity regression equation of them was also established. [Result] Combined with pathogenicity, colonymorphological characteristics and rDNA-ITS sequence analysis results, the pathogen was identified as Colletotrichum fructicola. The five fungicides including 80% Mancozeb WP, 80% Ethylicin EC, 250 g/L Azoxystrobin SC, 50% Kresoxim-methyl WG, and 500 g/L Fluazinam SC, had a certain inhibitory effect on mycelium growth, and the EC50 value of 80% Ethylicin EC was 19. 18 µg/mL, which showed a strong inhibitory effect. [Conclusion] The pathogen causing leaf spot disease on S. miltiorrhiza to happen in Zhongjiang county was C. fructicola. 80% Ethylicin EC had the strongest antibacterial activity and could be used for the prevention and control of the leaf spot disease. The study provides a theoretical basis for the treatment of leaf spot on S. miltiorrhiza. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]