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Under-education in Cameroon significantly hampers the nation's socio-economic development. Addressing this issue is crucial for enhancing the overall quality of life and economic growth of the country. This study identifies and analyses the primary factors contributing to under-education, offering actionable solutions to improve educational outcomes and promote sustainable development. The study employed a mixed-methods approach combining quantitative and qualitative data. Surveys were conducted with 1,000 households across urban and rural regions, alongside in-depth interviews with 50 educators, policymakers, and community leaders, and field observations in 20 schools. Structured questionnaires, semi-structured interview guides, and observation checklists were used. Advanced statistical techniques, including regression and factor analysis, were applied.

Child labour disrupts education, but there is scant research on the reciprocal relationship: education disrupting child labour. We examined the link between school quality and child cocoa agricultural work in a sample of 2168 fifth-grade children from forty-one primary schools in rural Côte d'Ivoire. Children attending a higher quality school were less likely to work on a cocoa plantation. Specifically, quality infrastructure and teaching materials were associated with reduced cocoa agricultural activities, but not with domestic and economic activities. Against the backdrop of a global focus on improving education quality, we suggest that investments in quality education may serve the dual purpose of reducing child labour alongside improving children's learning outcomes.

Pakistan is a country with insufficient educational resources. The formal educational system is unable to cater to the educational needs of the growing population. A great number of school-going children were out-of-school or dropped out and the majority was those who could not attend formal schooling due to some issues. Non-Formal Education (NFE) is an alternative approach to cater to the needs of education. But only enrolling out-of-school children in schools is not enough for them. They also need to be equipped with the skills necessary to survive in the modern world. Pehli Kiran Schools initiative claims to engage street connected children in learning 21st-century skills. The study aimed to explore the relevance of curriculum, provision of quality education, and the role of administration and teachers in keeping street-connected children motivated in the classrooms. It was qualitative research followed by a case study design. The research includes eight schools (all) involving their principals as a participant and their curriculum document employed at Pehli Kiran Schools. Framework for content analysis and semi-structured interviews were used for data collection. Thematic analysis and content analysis of different components of the curriculum of class five helped to draw conclusion. It was found these NFE schools had fewer physical and human resources. It was very difficult to create a conducive environment for learning in harsh weather conditions. But despite a lot of challenges, they were trying their level best to deliver a high-quality education within a limited budget and resources. For the development of 21st-century skills, the curriculum was found relevant. It was recommended that furniture should be available for students. Math clubs, spelling bees, and inter-school competitions should be introduced to develop teamwork, collaboration, and critical thinking among street-connected children.

An examination into the origins of rights' discourse and contemporary debates around child labour in developing countries, illustrates some of the problems with the discursive uses that children's rights is put to, and its weakness as a means of addressing issues of social justice. Addressing the discourse around child labour, and how this is related to wider conceptions of the individual in post-European Enlightenment thought, enables some enquiry into the nature of these problems. Arce (2015) reveals the scale of child labour as a social issue, and that it occurs predominantly in developing countries, with almost a fifth of the global total of child labourers residing in Africa. Whilst it has a global impact that transcends national borders, the framing of the discourse around it occurs within parameters set by European actors. In this paper we argue that, if children's rights campaigns wish to do more than reinforce existing global systems of domination and subordination, there needs to be a focus on children's place in a nexus of social relations that themselves need radical rethinking. Such a project, we argue, could more usefully provide a starting place for conceptions of social justice that pay adequate attention to the needs of childhood.

Using a mixed research design, the overall objective of this study is to investigate the profiles of child labour in Ethiopia's districts of Raya-Kobo and Angot. The study's specific objectives are to examine types of activities and prevalence of child labour, to identify the children's working contexts, and to evaluate the extent of harm children face in workplaces. The study hypothesizes the existence of significant variations in the profiles of child labour (activity types, prevalence rates, settings, and level of harm to children) as a result of several circumstances. While survey methodology was used to collect primary data from 431 randomly selected respondents, desk review and document analysis were also used to gather secondary data. The sampling procedures used include multi-stage purposive and systematic random sampling. Descriptive and inferential (Ordered Probit Regression model) methods of data analysis are utilized to analyze the data. The results of the descriptive analysis demonstrate a high incidence and magnitude of child labour, as well as children's early entry to work. The regression analysis reveals children's exposure to high levels of harm at work, which is directly exacerbated by household age, income diversification, land fragmentation, livestock number, shocks, and the predicted value of remittances. Contrarily, access to rural transportation, household heads' education level, cart ownership, and family size reduce children's harm extent while working. The study highlights the need to design strategies for age-appropriate work to protect children from hazardous and high-intensity activities, undertake community awareness campaigns about the impact of child labour on children, and strengthen local stakeholders' capacity. Additionally, connecting rural areas and farmers' croplands to towns or major routes via repaired or new roads would be beneficial.

Purpose: Violence against children in the world and Turkey is increasing day by day, and this alarming increase harms the development of children and the future of society. Therefore, pre-service teachers' sensitivity to violence against children is of great importance in terms of revealing the violence and conducting preventive and directive services. This study aimed to determine pre-service teachers' sensitivity to violence against children. Research Methods: This was a case study using a qualitative research design. The study group consisted of sixteen pre-service teachers who were studying in eight different departments, in the third and fourth grades of the Faculty of Education in a state university in Central Anatolia. The content analysis method was used for data analysis. Findings: It was observed that pre-service teachers have moderate sensitivity to physical and cyberbullying against children; and high sensitivity to psychological, economic, and sexual violence. Implications for Research and Practice: In this research, it is seen that pre-service teachers show insensitivity to psychological and economic violence. Also, they stated that they could use punishment methods against violence. In this respect, training on violence and effective behavior change is recommended.

Data mining in education predictions are made about other groups based on the big data of education. However, the extent to which training data can be accessed is relative. A group that can be described as missing data is children living or working on the street. For this reason this study aimed to deal with children working or living on the street. Children who have to live or work on the street before they can complete their development are faced with many dangers arising from the street and may be exposed to social exclusion. In this context, the aim of this study is to examine the social dimension of the problems faced by children living or working on the street and to analyze and evaluate the limited number of data on this issue. The research is a compilation study in line with the literature analysis of the sources about children living and working on the street.

There is nearly universal consensus that child labour is harmful to the development of the child, however, widespread contention exists on whether child labour is cultural or economic necessity. This paper aimed to ascertain parental perceptions of the nature of child labour in rural and urban Ghana. The sample size of this study was 60 participants, all of whom were parents. Participants included: government officials; NGO representatives; and both parents whose children were involved in child labour, and parents whose children were not. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with parents (10) and stakeholders (10) and Focus groups (30); and participant observations (10) were also utilised. A purposive sampling technique was employed across rural and urban areas in Ghana. Interviews were recorded and transcribed. A framework approach was utilised as the main qualitative data analysis method. Parents in the rural areas indicated that the nature of child labour is cultural because children are not working because of economic necessity but for cultural reasons. On the other hand, children engage in child labour in the urban area for economic necessity since child labour is a very important component of the local economy. Understanding the socio-cultural and economic factors that drive child labour is necessary to design and execute the most suitable mechanisms for intervention and prevention.

This article discusses the role of the community in the development of socio-economically marginalised children. There are several government schemes and civil society efforts for their upliftment. There is further need to critically analyse researches done with a distinct political stance which either seek to manage the marginalised or to 'empower' them. Such policies are simply management techniques and are not really a quest for the actual empowerment of these communities. Most of the research are carried from the perspective of a 'deficit model' perspective and not with an unprejudiced perspective of 'reaching out'. The article draws from three qualitative field studies, with different settings of marginalised children in Delhi-NCR to argue for an empathybased model for researching the underprivileged. The empirical argument is further strengthened by insights drawn from Pestalozzi and Savitri Bai Phule's work with the community. While these action-oriented researches seek to underscore the importance of the work for marginalised sections, we also draw from Dewey's idea of democratic education that insists upon the schools' role and responsibility to involve marginalised sections.

Despite technological advancements in engineering, medicine, agriculture, food, and health; we live in a global community of incidents, challenges, and crises, contrary to the hope of living in a 21st century utopia. Child labour can be seen as a malignant symptom for which policy-makers and senior authorities must take immediate and effective actions to help, although such persons may be scattered throughout a country's cities. Numerous public and private organisations provide different kinds of support for child labour victims, often with some good successes. However, universities and higher education institutions generally are not participants in providing practical guidance and help for outside organisations, either unintentionally or for purposes determined by their own campus-bound priorities, decisions, and policies. As a novel research to investigate the lives of children of labour, we administered a multiple case study with five children to obtain their feedback concerning their lives as well as their portrayal of today's society. Then, a purposive sample of researchers/scholars (N=98) provided views on best practices and immediate as well as long run solutions for improving status and life expectancy for children of labour.

The educational attainment literature has brought back interest in early American primary schools, and much current research views those schools as superior to their European peers in the education offered to youth. Its emphasis, though, on using school enrollment as the prime indicator of attainment conflicts with the revisionist view of a previous generation of historians who argued that education in the heavily rural and agricultural society of the time should be considered as a process of social reproduction delivered by households, with schools being peripheral for most youth. This article, relying on evidence from statutes, indentures, and a 1798 New York State school survey, finds increased resort to primary schooling over the eighteenth century, attributable not to American exceptionalism but to a transatlantic movement away from scribal-dominated literacy and numeracy toward common use of a standardized written vernacular and "arithmetic by pen." However, the dependence of households on child labor meant that the Three Rs did not get distributed in either an egalitarian or compact fashion. Small doses spread over a number of years--"educational sprawl"--best describes the system, and it lasted through much of the nineteenth century.

Whether SMS-based nudge interventions can increase parent engagement and improve child learning outcomes across diverse contexts such as rural West Africa is unknown. We conducted a school-randomized trial to test the impacts of an audio or text-message intervention (two messages per week for one school year) to parents and teachers of second and fourth grade students (N = 100 schools, 2246 students) in Cote d'Ivoire. Schools were randomly assigned to have messages sent to (i) parents only, (ii) teachers only, (iii) parents and teachers together, or (iv) control. There were statistically non-significant impacts of the parents-only treatment on learning, although with typical effect sizes (d = 0.08, p = 0.158), and marginally statistically significant increases in child labor (d = 0.11, p < 0.10). We find no impacts of the other treatment conditions. Subgroup analyses based on pre-registered subgroups show significantly larger improvements in learning for children with below-median baseline learning levels for the parents-only arm and negative impacts on learning for girls for the teachers-only arm, suggesting different conclusions regarding impacts on equity for vulnerable children.

The aim of this study is to compare children who are child laborers and those not working in terms of subjective well-being, engagement and motivation, and levels of liking school. The study group consisted of 120 male students (60 students were child laborers; the other students did not work) in two secondary schools. In this study, the motivation to study scale, the class engagement scale, and the subjective well-being scale were used. The Mann Whitney-U Test and Kruskal Wallis Variance Analysis Test were used to analyze the data. In this study, differences were found between the child labor group and non-working groups of students in terms of motivation to study, engagement in class and subjective well-being. With respect to child labor, it was found that as the liking of school increased, the subjective well-being, class engagement and motivation to study levels increased. Conversely, with respect to not-working children, it was found that as the liking of school, class engagement and motivation to study levels increased.

The present paper explores some important social factors responsible for the low motivation of girls for primary education in the slum areas of Karachi, Pakistan. The objective of the study was to identify the challenges and social factors responsible for the low motivation of girls for education in the slums of Karachi. The study was qualitative in nature. All the teachers, school heads and female students of government girls primary schools in slums areas from Kamari, Malir, Lyari, Baldia and Gadap towns of Karachi were included as the population. Fifty teachers, twentyfive school heads, and fifty students were selected as a sample on the basis of purposive sampling. The information was collected through interviews, focus group discussions, observations and informal conversations. To analyze the qualitative data of interviews, focus group discussions and field notes, "Constant Comparative Method" was used. The researcher conducted thematic analysis approach to analyze the qualitative data. The analysis revealed that the socio-economic status of the parents, socio-cultural barriers and child labour are the main reasons for the low motivation of education for girls in the slum areas of Karachi. Policy recommendations based on the findings have further been discussed in the study.

According to the International Labor Organization, at least 160 million children ages 5 to 17 around the world were involved in some form of child labor at the beginning of 2020, including 79 million children performing hazardous labor. This article uses recent representative data from Bangladesh and Pakistan to investigate the relationship between foundational skills and child labor engagements for 12- to 14-year-old children. It found a consistent negative association between child labor and reading and numeracy foundational skills. In particular, it found that engagement in hazardous child labor had large negative associations with reading and numeracy foundational skills. It also found negative associations between engagement in economic labor and reading foundational skills. Finally, the article found that intense engagement in household labor was also negatively associated with foundational skills. It discusses the implications of these findings which paint a deeply concerning picture of the challenges ahead of the global community to ensure that all children acquire foundational skills (and beyond). It notes that systematic efforts to define, document, and measure child labor will be crucial to better understand the negative implications of child labor for foundational learning and the potential policy solutions to address these impacts.

Research on the associations among adversity, executive function (EF), and academic outcomes in low- and middle-income countries, where developmental risk factors are more prevalent and impoverished environments are more widespread than in high income countries, is sparse. This study examines the relations among cumulative risk, EF, and learning outcomes measured 2-years later in Ghanaian third- and fourth-graders (N = 371; 49% female), shedding light on underlying mechanisms of how risk can undermine learning. A cumulative risk index was created based on a set of four child-reported risk factors: home aggression, unsafe home neighborhood, hunger, and having worked for pay. Cumulative risk and EF were negatively correlated. Learning outcomes (literacy and math test scores) were negatively correlated with earlier measures of cumulative risk and positively correlated with earlier measures of EF. EF mediated the association between cumulative risk and later learning outcomes, accounting for 65.3% of the total effect for literacy and 100% for math. This mediated pathway was robust to controls for child and household sociodemographic characteristics. The findings contribute to a small evidence base on the mediating role of EF in linking adversity and learning outcomes in a global context. [For the grantee submission, see ED622175.]

Since Indonesia's transition to democracy in 1998, wealth inequality has increased significantly with a dramatic rise in the wealth of the rich and stagnating income growth among poorer citizens. Similar to many developing countries, the issue of child workers in Indonesia is a critical problem. The "2015 National Labour Force Survey" recorded 1.65 million children aged 15-17 involved in child work in Indonesia. Efforts to encourage the participation of child workers in schooling has been greatly promoted but few studies have investigated the issue of the impact of child work on student learning outcomes. Children involved in work are likely to be left behind in educational achievement. Their disadvantaged social, cultural, and economic backgrounds lead to physical and psychosocial vulnerabilities, which requires democratic-classroom approaches, characterized by child-centred settings and teachers familiar with students' diverse learning abilities. This paper presents findings from a study investigating Indonesian teachers' perspectives on the impacts of work on student learning outcomes and how they implement diverse teaching and learning styles when educating child workers. This study highlighted the lack of school and teacher readiness in managing child workers' diverse needs and the absence of teachers' involvement in developing policies for child worker education that may all lead to child workers not achieving learning outcomes. This study outcomes also support democratic-style classroom approaches in making education a reliable investment for child workers. This study provides recommendations for improved policies and practices for the local government and schools in the East Nusa Tenggara province.

Literature classrooms hold great potential to educate students for critical global citizenship through serious engagement with marginalized stories that test or subvert mainstream knowledges and structures, including the familiar humanitarian framework that dominates Western thinking about the Global South. Unfortunately, much existing literary curriculum in the Global North often does just the opposite. Instead, Western-oriented texts and safe, traditional reading practices contribute to a form of global citizenship that perpetuates Western hegemony and limits expressions of citizenship to benevolent actions. This is especially the case where global citizenship curriculum is developed by NGOs and humanitarian organizations, such as Me to We, a popular social enterprise with increasing influence over education in Canada, the U.S. and the U.K. Using the frameworks of critical global citizenship education, Slaughter's (2006) theory of humanitarian reading, and Stone-Mediatore's (2003) notion of reading for enlarged thought, this paper will undertake a close reading of the unit materials for "Free the Children," a unit developed by Me to We, which aspires to educate for global citizenship. Unit activities problematically appropriate the voices and viewpoints of child laborers in South Asia by establishing dichotomies between readers and the populations that Me to We aspires to help. This unit provides a means by which to examine the effectiveness of reading a memoir by an exemplary humanitarian, particularly when unit activities are framed by an organization with a particular humanitarian agenda.

Getting education is very important for both boys and girls. However, there are female children who do not complete school cycle and leave school before its completion which is one of the concerning issues for the Ministry of Education in Pakistan. To know why these girls drop out of school, the study provides some brief information on it. To get information on the above issue, structured interviews were used. The study was conducted in 4 Girls primary schools of Tehsil Bahrain district SWAT. Data was collected from sample of 80 respondents, in which (11 dropout girls from Govt Girls Primary School Madyan Swat, 16 from Govt Girls Primary School Ayeen Swat, 22 dropout girls from Girls Primary School Darolai Swat, 3 dropout girls from Girls Primary School Jail Bahrain Swat. 20 mothers of the dropout students and 8 teachers. After collecting information, some of the main causes for the dropout were found as work to earn some money for support of family (poverty), moving from one place to another, culture of the village, punishment, teachers' behavior, long distance from house to school and lack of text books and facilities. By looking to the findings of the study, there is a need of other researches in the area.

We investigate the effect of an educational cash transfer on schooling and working of the recipients and their non-recipient siblings in Indonesia, using a matched difference-in-differences strategy. We find that the cash transfer increases the probability of schooling for all recipients. Specifically, the likelihood of schooling for the senior secondary school children increases by 19 percentage points. However, there is no effect on the recipient's probability to work. Furthermore, there is no significant spill-over effect on non-recipient siblings' schooling. While the transfer reduces the incidence of child labour for non-recipient girls, it increases the probability of non-recipient boys to work.

Street children are often constructed as fragile individuals who lose their innocent childhood since they have to work and do not have the opportunity to play like most of their peers. Using Bourdieu's concept of field, capital and habitus, this article seeks to go beyond the existing notion of play by exploring how street children in Bandung, Indonesia, understand and negotiate play with working as part of their everyday lives. The authors took an ethnographic approach to collect data from 14 street children and their guardians, mainly through observation and ongoing conversation. The findings suggest that the children are able not only to navigate the meaning of play, but also to negotiate their social position with adults on the street. This article serves as an invitation for educators and policymakers to develop educational programmes that are sensitive to multiple meanings of play, children and childhood.

Illegal gold mining activities contribute tremendously to the local economy of the communities within which the practice is conducted. Despite such developments, its activities come with several environmental, economic, developmental and societal and educational challenges that governments, environmentalists, and educationalists have fought several decades to overcome. The study sought to examine the effect of illegal gold mining operations on school dropout. A sample size of 102 participants was selected for quantitative analysis together with purposive sampling of 20 key informants for qualitative analysis. The study found that children engage in Illegal gold mining and subsequent dropout from school.

This paper investigates the effect of various idiosyncratic shocks against child labor, child labor hour and school attendance. Also, the role of the assets held by households as one of the coping strategies to mitigate the effects of shocks. The results show that various idiosyncratic shocks that encourage child labor is generally caused by crop loss, a disease suffered by the head or member of the household, a decrease in household income due to lower prices and the quantity produced and the death of the head or a family member. This indicates that households are not sheltered from the idiosyncratic shocks and restricted access to formal and informal institutions. Other findings show a variety of idiosyncratic shocks does not affect child labor hour and the school attendance. Additionally, household assets play an important role in reducing the number of child labor and increase school attendance but do not affect the child labor hour during a variety of idiosyncratic shocks.

One of the great problems of Ethiopia for the educational arena is retention. Averagely 8.07% of each year of the secondary education students is repeated due to lack of achievement in this country. The percentage of retention in a country shows what proportion of students is regularly repeated in the same grade and who are, therefore, committing different crimes and misbehaved behaviors. Grade retention predicts many negative student outcomes: the frustration and humiliation associated with repeating the curriculum, combined with one's physical size, may result in an increase in aggression and oppositional behavior. The main purpose of this study was to investigate some of the causes that contribute to grade nine students' grade retention in general secondary schools of Dabat district. It has attempted to identify the major factors under two headings: in-school and out-of-school factors to present separate area of intervention. In order to attain the objectives, the study was carried out in two general secondary schools which were selected using comprehensive sampling techniques. The study involved 264 (M = 106 & F = 158) grade repeaters and 44 teachers and 2 principals. The data gathered were analyzed using percentage, mean, Spearmen rank order correlation coefficient and t-test. Based on the result of the analysis, among the in-school factors, the highest percentages were observed for difficulty of language of instruction, students' failure to study hard, poor quality of teaching, lack of guidance and counseling and frequent absenteeism of students were in-school related. On the other hand, low level of family income, parent (pupils) health problem, lack of parents support and child labor were identified as the major out-of-school causes for grade retention in grade nine secondary schools. It was also found out that the combined effect of both in-school and out-of-school factors was important in explaining students' grade retentions in the secondary schools of the district. The incidence of the problem is relatively higher among girls than among boys.

Scholars of citizenship education have long regarded deliberation as the default framework for democratic discussion in the classroom and beyond. Turning to the history and theory of rhetoric, we question why the deliberative model of the Athenian assembly has been developed for social studies pedagogy without including the litigative discourse of the Athenian courts. In response, we offer civic litigation, a discursive framework that recasts public controversies from a pro vs. con to an accusation vs. defense format. By examining the role of civic litigation in a historical case study from the 1960s Black civil rights movement, along with three inquiry-based lessons concerning contemporary controversies, we argue that civic litigation plays a crucial role in the effort to make inquiry-based instruction critical when it addresses issues of injustice.

This study provides new evidence on the long-term impact of education on welfare participation in the US. I exploit historical changes in child labor laws as an instrumental variable for education to estimate the causal effects of education on the probability of receiving social welfare benefits. I find large and statistically significant negative effects of education on welfare participation among persons who obtained additional education due to increased schooling requirements induced by child labor laws. The findings are robust across different sample selection and model specifications.

Authors for young adult literature often present their tales directly through the voice of the story narrators. However, Kashmira Sheth, in her "Boys without Names," seeks to present her tale, specifically the issue of child labor, through the use of frame stories which are recounted by two or more narrators. Through frame stories, the authors are able to raise the readers' awareness of child labor. This paper, through narrative theory, sets out to examine the function of frame stories in young adult literature and explores how Kashmira Sheth employs this literature to impart wisdom and the importance of being mindful of other people. The study found that frame stories have a remarkable impact on how the young readers comprehend the themes prevalent in "Boys without Names." Frame stories also allow the author to convey moral messages and good virtues to the young adult audience. The use of fables also entertains and amuses the readers. Finally, by incorporating multiple narrators in this novel, the author is able not only to depict the issue of child labor from various perspectives; she also expands insights on child labor and confirms the credibility and reliability of the literary text.

The present study investigates the causative factors of child labour in selected districts of South Punjab, Pakistan. As a member of the International Labour Organization (ILO) Pakistan has a responsibility to stamp out child labour from its regions. Our sample was selected from seven working environments (workshops, hotels, tea stalls, households, etc.) through purposive sampling. The data were collected via a questionnaire which was completed by a sample of 547 working children. The findings of the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) explored four factors from the research. Multilevel analyses were calculated to pinpoint the causative factors of child labour. The study results revealed that, due to family responsibilities, a lack of educational opportunities for children from low-income families, and increasing poverty, children develop an interest in working to earn their livelihood at the cost of their education. The children are involved in labour because their parents cannot meet their personal and educational requirements.

We can expect climate change to alter the frequency, magnitude, timing, and location of many natural hazards. For example, heat waves are likely to become more frequent, and heavy downpours and flooding more common and more intense. Hurricanes will likely grow more dangerous, rising sea levels will mean more coastal flooding, and more-frequent and more-intense droughts will produce more wildfires. Children, particularly the poor and those in developing countries, are at risk. Carolyn Kousky considers three ways that natural disasters may harm children disproportionately, often with long-lasting effects. First, disasters can damage children's physical health. Children may be injured or killed, but they may also suffer from such things as malnutrition caused by disruptions in food supply or diarrheal illness caused by contaminated water. Moreover, disasters can cut off access to medical care, even for non-disaster-related illnesses. Second, disasters can cause mental health problems. Not only are disasters themselves stressful and frightening, but children can suffer psychological harm from the damage to their homes and possessions; from migration; from the grief of losing loved ones; from seeing parents or caregivers undergo stress; from neglect and abuse; and from breakdowns in social networks, neighborhoods, and local economies. Third, disasters can interrupt children's education by displacing families, destroying schools, and pushing children into the labor force to help their families make ends meet in straitened times. How can we mitigate the dangers to children even as disasters become more powerful and more frequent? For one thing, we can prepare for disasters before they strike, for example, by strengthening school buildings and houses. Kousky also describes actions that have been proven to help children after a disaster, such as quickly reuniting them with parents and caregivers. Finally, a range of policies not designed for disasters can nonetheless help mitigate the harm disasters cause children and their families. In fact, Kousky writes, using existing safety net programs may be easier, faster, and more effective than creating entirely new programs after a disaster occurs.

Child labour has emerged as a serious, widespread and rapid growing problem in many parts of the world. Child labour is a socio-economic issue, which not only wrecks the social growth but also damages the moral fabrics of our society. The on hand paper not only highlights this very issue but also have a close look at its major inverse affect on Universalization of Primary Education (one of the MDGs). The main reason for child labour in many countries, particularly in third world nations is lack of education which is mainly caused by poverty, location, child status, family status and teacher's behaviour etc. This paper attempts to assess the causes and effects of child Labour and its impact on Universalization of primary education at district Bannu. This study was descriptive in nature. Population of this study was comprised of all the male (1688) and female teachers (1251) i.e. 2939 teachers teaching at primary level and all the parents/ guardians i.e. 992 of the child labourers at district Bannu KPK, Pakistan. The sample of the study in case of teachers was 147 @ 5% while that of parents/guardians of child labourers was 100 @ 10%. A self developed questionnaire for teachers from where children have dropout and preferred to labour/work and also a structured questionnaire for those parents/guardians whose children were engaged in some sort of work/labour from the very beginning and have not been enrolled in any educational institution/school was distributed to know their perceptions regarding child labour and Universalization of primary education. This study was guided by these objectives: to compare the views of teachers about students preferring to child labour due to non availability of Govt schools near to their homes in rural & urban areas of District Bannu. to compare the views of teachers about students preferring to child labour due to increasing mode of educational expenses working in rural & urban areas of District Bannu. to compare the views of teachers regarding students preferring to child labour due to family members pressure not to attend the school in rural & urban areas of District Bannu, to compare the teacher perceptions for students prefer to child labour due to physical disability problems in rural & urban areas of District Bannu. To compare the teacher's perceptions regarding student preferences for child labour due to behavior of teachers in rural & urban areas of District Bannu and to suggest some measures to decrease Child Labour and to Universalize Primary Education at district Bannu in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. To obtain the most appropriate and accurate results from the collected data, the coded questionnaire was analyzed through SPSS (V-23) in terms of percentage, frequencies, descriptive analysis, mean, standard deviation, ANOVA, Regression, Correlation, chi square and ttest was used for the analysis by the researcher.

Since 1999, one of the main strategies the Colombian government has used to mitigate coca cultivation is to spray the crops with herbicide, which is carried out from airplanes. In this paper I evaluate the consequences of this strategy for rural households in areas where coca is cultivated, specifically the effects of aerial spraying on child labor and education. Since the areas where spraying takes place are fundamentally different from those where it does not, I use a two-stage least squares model, instrumenting for aerial eradication with the number of days highspeed winds in the municipality made spraying difficult. These were days in which the wind was one standard deviation above the municipality's monthly average. This corrects for possible sources of endogeneity due to selection bias. The results of this study show that aerial spraying was associated with a one percentage point increase in the likelihood that children ages 12-17 would work instead of going to school. Crop spraying was further associated with a 0.15 percentage point increase in the probability that older siblings in families living in a coca-growing area would fall behind in school, and a five percentage point increase in the probability that younger siblings would drop out of school. Thus, the findings of this research, based on data that cover the period from 2008 to 2012, suggest that the war on drugs has the potential to generate new barriers to educational access for children who live in areas where aerial spraying occurs.

In this article, we bring to the foreground an understudied dimension of working children's lives in the Global South: their access to money and the consumption this facilitates. Drawing on life history interviews, we show that among the Gamo weavers of Ethiopia, the modern phenomenon of a monetised childhood is at least six decades old and an element of the informal apprenticeships through which Gamo children learn to weave. Qualitative research with young weavers shows that both girls and boys become involved in weaving. Yet the amount of "senbeta misa" money they receive differs substantially, fuelling distinctly different consumption practices and reinforcing broader gender relations. Zooming in on boys' monetised leisure activities, we furthermore argue that through consumption belonging to age-based, ethnic peer groups is realised. Moreover, while the monetisation of leisure is shaped by globalisation and market forces, we show that boys and young men themselves also actively contribute to the monetisation of their leisure activities and thereby transform the nature of play.

In international comparisons, Sweden is one of the countries with the lowest number of children growing up in poverty; its material standard is high, and welfare services are extensive and heavily subsidised. How child poverty can be understood in that context is interrogated in the article. The point of departure for the discussion is Swedish Save the Children's 2013 anti-poverty campaign "Fattigskolan" [Poverty School]. The campaign presents child poverty from the vantage point of a welfare state and is informative for understanding normative discourses on childhood. Childhood is investigated as a social imagination that both structures children's and parents' everyday lives and organises society. It is argued that the dominant social imagination is based on a middle-class fantasy permeating the organisation of the welfare state. The elements of this fantasy are critical to understanding child poverty.

Education is important for the successful development and growth of individuals and societies, yet some factors adversely affect its provision. This article reports on a study that explored the factors that adversely affect education in the Builsa District located in the Upper East Region (UER) of Northern Ghana, by examining the attitudes and concerns of the people in Chuchuliga regarding education. Surveys were administered to students, parents/guardians and head teachers, and interviews and focus group discussions were held with opinion leaders and school dropouts, respectively. A striking finding was that the Tono Irrigation Dam located at Navrongo and farming, which is the predominant economic activity, negatively affect education in the community. Further findings were that the late introduction of education in Northern Ghana and traditional beliefs about education, as well as other long-established factors are responsible for high illiteracy and school-dropout rates. Recommendations to improve the quality of education in the district and country are discussed.

In 2017 the California Legislature, recognizing the efficacy of education as a trafficking prevention tool, enacted the first state law in the Union mandating anti-trafficking education in the 7th through 12th grade public school curriculum. Set against the backdrop of Congress' Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000, this article examines federal anti-trafficking laws and California's landmark enactment of its Human Trafficking Prevention Education and Training Act of 2017. Prior to the enactment of this law several California schools located in "high intensity child prostitution" areas implemented anti-trafficking curriculum and found that educating children was a necessary preventative measure. Congress, through the Department of Education (ED), and now, the California Legislature through the California Department of Education, have developed policy and enacted legislation to emplace anti-trafficking in the school curriculum. In 2015, the ED commissioned a study to help school officials create proper school responses and protocols upon victim identification. The study emphasizes the importance of educators' ability to discern problematic behaviors as possible symptoms of abuse and victimization (US ED OSHS, 2015). Human trafficking of US school children occurs in all 50 states. It is time for other jurisdictions to consider the efficacy of anti-trafficking education legislation in the public school curriculum.

There is a dearth of research on the frustrations, moral dilemmas and challenges non-Western teachers might face in the everyday praxis of peace education. To address this gap, this study analyses how violence is negotiated and understood in an Indian school seeking to build a culture of peace. Interviews with eight teachers and four students are analysed using grounded theory. Firstly, the study discusses a teacher's response to a student witnessing domestic violence. Thereby, it explores the limits of peace education in the face of home-school boundaries and societal stigmas. Secondly, the study discusses a teacher's attempt to help an abused child labourer. It questions the extent to which peace education can tackle systemic inequalities and the danger of the field reproducing exclusionary structures. Thirdly, the study discusses the intergenerational politics of children endorsing corporal punishment. It seeks to demonstrate how socio-economic pressures and historical legacies might lead to children legitimating violence against their own bodies. By exploring the fractures and gaps within peace education in an understudied non-Western context, the study aims to raise larger questions about the structures and norms hindering ideals of peace and the need for peace education to prioritise criticality, context and reflexivity.

This paper concerns children's relations with the geological aspects of digital media technologies. Using ideas from media theory, I develop a new conceptual framework for childhood studies research on digital media that goes beyond the dominant focus on children's use of technology. I argue that studies of use would benefit from being linked up with analyses of the technicality and physicality of technology. Following recent debates concerning the Anthropocene, the planetary nature of digital media require analyses that link local and global scales, and address the politics of the specific materialities of digital media. As an example of the analytical potential of this approach, I discuss the issue of child labour in cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

This article explores the history of school gardens in educational projects linked to four scholars at Teachers College (Bigelow, Dewey, Kilpatrick and Carney) during the early twentieth century. It concludes that gardening activities were designed primarily for urban children who lacked experience in farming. The role of gardening in experimental schools in the North is compared with proposals for rural schools in the Midwest and for segregated schools for Black youth in the South. Various logics are identified by analysing the educational arguments used to promote or dismiss school gardening, and the rationales for educating or retaining a certain type of labour force. A combination of these arguments appears in Dewey's vindication of the emergency production of foodstuffs during the First World War. The different logics point to the paradox connecting the themes of a 'return to nature' and 'love of labour' as constants in the school gardening discourse.

While school enrollment at the primary level has been rising in developing countries rapidly, international measures of education quality do not exhibit a parallel improvement. Since parents' expenditure is an important determinant of children's school performance, we investigate parents' investments on quality measured by their spending on books and other school materials. We develop an overlapping generations model in which parents use children's human capital as a screening measure for adjusting their investment. Our main hypothesis is that families consider better school performance to be a reliable predictor of future return, and this will incentivize them to invest more.