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Ambrosia beetles are an emerging threat to forestry ecosystems, attacking native and non-native trees. The brazilwood (Paubrasilia echinata (Lam.) Gagnon, H.C.Lima & G.P.Lewis) is currently considered the most appropriate material for the manufacture of violin bows due to its unique vibrational properties. An experimental plantation of brazilwood has been attacked by the ambrosia beetle Megaplatypus mutatus Chapuis. In this work, we compared the cell wall carbohydrate composition of brazilwood sawdust produced due to the attack of imagoes (adult males) and larvae of this beetle. We aimed to assess changes caused by the insect and its associated microbiota. Cellulose and xylans represented the main fractions of all materials, and pectin accounted for only 10-15% of the walls. The yield of wall fractions and cell wall composition of the sawdust produced by adult beetles, which is composed of long particles, were quite similar to those found in the material obtained from uninfected trunks indicating that the adult male does not feed on the wood at this stage. In contrast, chemical fractionation of the granular sawdust from larvae showed a lower content of extractable pectins, representing only 50% of the total amount detected in the sawdust produced by adult male beetles. Sugar composition analysis of the pectin fractions of the larval sawdust revealed the loss of arabinosyl, galacturonosyl, and galactosyl residues, indicating that the association between beetle/ambrosia fungus evolves towards the degradation of easily accessible pectic polysaccharides of the cell wall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Pods of the forest species Caesalpinia echinata were used as an alternative adsorbent to remove bright blue (BB) and methylene blue (MB) dyes. The raw and acid-treated samples were characterized by techniques like SEM, XRD, and FTIR. The acid-treated pod sample was characterized by an amorphous structure containing several cavities, bumps, and functional groups. The Elovich model was the most satisfactory to describe the adsorption kinetic data. The isothermal studies were better described by the Langmuir model for BB dye, with a maximum capacity of 261 mg g−1, and Tóth model for MB dye, giving a maximum capacity of 288 mg g−1. The thermodynamic study indicated a spontaneous and favorable process and endothermic nature for both dyes. In the treatment of two simulated effluents containing a mixture of different compounds such as dyes and salts, to simulate real wastewaters, the adsorbent was highly efficient, presenting around 80% of color removal for both effluents. Therefore, the acid-treated pods of Caesalpinia echinata have great potential to be applied as an alternative adsorbents in treating colored effluents in discontinuous systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

RESUMO O pau-brasil, Paubrasilia echinata E.Gagnon, H.C.Lima & G.P.Lewis, é uma das mais importantes espécies vegetais do Brasil. Muitos fatores podem interferir na manutenção da viabilidade e na conservação das sementes, principalmente sua qualidade fisiológica inicial. Entre outros fatores, esta qualidade depende do grau de maturação, sendo importante identificar a maturidade fisiológica com vistas a determinar o melhor momento para a colheita das sementes. O presente trabalho descreve as modificações que ocorrem durante o processo de maturação das sementes de pau-brasil em três diferentes locais no Estado de São Paulo. Flores foram etiquetadas no dia de sua antese e os frutos foram colhidos diretamente dos ramos até os 65 dias após a antese (DAA). Os resultados sugerem que a maturidade fisiológica das sementes de pau-brasil ocorreu por volta de 60-65 DAA, imediatamente antes da deiscência da vagem, quando as sementes tinham 30-40% de água e quando há eficiente controle do fluxo de água entre sementes e frutos durante a maturação.

Paubrasilia echinata is recognized as the best wood in the manufacture of high-quality bows for string instruments. The wood anatomy of five historic French violin bows of the 19th and 20th century made of Pernambuco wood were investigated in order to reveal the wood anatomic features of these historical bows, to determine which P. echinata morphotype (arruda , café or laranja) was used in their manufacture and to identify the state of origin of the wood. Five bow samples were compared to 33 P. echinata specimens from the Brazilian states of Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Paraíba and Rio Grande do Norte. The wood anatomical features were compared by means of principal component analysis, which revealed the type of axial parenchyma and percentage of tissue to be the most important to sort specimens. The best wood anatomical features previously described for high-quality bows were corroborated here and the bows in general showed similar wood anatomical features. Based on wood anatomy we found that the violin bows were most similar to the samples from the arruda morphotype derived from the States of Paraíba and Rio Grande do Norte by presenting scanty, unilateral and vasicentric axial parenchyma without confluences forming bands, higher percentage of fibres and lower percentage of axial parenchyma. We can therefore suggest that the historical French violin bows studied here were all made of the arruda morphotype from the Brazilian Northeast region helping explain the preference of the French explorers for this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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We identified the wood of the sticks of eight bows in the historical collection of musical instruments in the Galleria dell'Accademia in Florence. Wood identification was carried out non-invasively (i.e., without sampling wood from the original objects), because the removal of samples from fine musical instruments will affect their aesthetic integrity and/or functional quality. Identification attempts using reflected light microscopy of wood surfaces, gave only partial results due to the poor quality of the surfaces and the particular geometry of the sticks that does not have any transverse surface. Application of Synchrotron light X-ray microtomography (μCT) in phase-contrast mode to the whole sticks allowed us to obtain stacks of transverse-sectional images that, processed as virtual volumes, revealed several anatomical features. With μCT it was possible to identify three bows as Brosimum guianense (Moraceae), one bow as Caesalpinia echinata (Caesalpiniaceae), and four bows as Manilkara sp. (Sapotaceae). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seed storage is an important tool for ex situ conservation. Orthodox seeds can be stored for long periods, but recalcitrant seeds generally only for short periods. There is wide variation in the degree of desiccation tolerance between orthodox and recalcitrant seeds, leading authors to suggest levels of recalcitrance and, more recently, that there are variations in the stage of maturity at seed dispersal. Thus, recalcitrant behavior would be a result of premature dispersal from the mother plant. In this study, we sought to establish physiological relationships between different stages of development of immature orthodox Caesalpinia echinata seeds and the stages described for recalcitrant seeds to verify similarity of behavior. Therefore, we analyzed the desiccation tolerance of seeds collected at different ages, with and without PEG treatment, at different levels of drying (40%, 30%, 20% and 10% water content, wet basis). Changes in water potential, germination, vigor, and respiratory rates of the seeds were analyzed, and the results showed that: 1) desiccation tolerance increased as maturation proceeded; 2) PEG treatment did not induce desiccation tolerance; and 3) PEG treatment decreased the seed oxidation rate, which is the main factor in rapid seed deterioration of C. echinata in storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper it was investigated the organoleptic properties and machining of six potential woods for bows of stringed instruments and compared the results with those mentioned for the Caesalpinia echinata wood, the reference for modern bows. Thirty wood stores were visited in different cities of the São Paulo state to verify the commercial availability of these woods. We concluded that despite the traditionalism of the red tones in the woods for bows, woods with yellowish tones such as Handroanthus spp. and Dipteryx spp. or brownish such as Diplotropis spp. with appropriate properties, may offer alternative colors and textures to the musicians. It was observed that the Mezilaurus itauba and Astronium lecointei, woods with easy machining, have no potential suitable for bows. Regarding to availability, all woods tested are relatively easy to find nowadays in the wood market. Handroanthus spp. and Dipteryx spp. showed greater potential for making bows for professional musicians.The woods of Mezilaurus itauba and Astronium lecointei did not show good potentialfor bows.Neste trabalho foram investigadas as propriedades organolépticas e a trabalhabilidade de seis madeiras potenciais para arcos de instrumentos de corda e os resultados comparados com os da madeira de Caesalpinia echinata, referência para arcos modernos. Foram visitadas 30 madeireiras em diferentes cidades do Estado de São Paulo para observar a disponibilidade das seis madeiras. Conclui-se que apesar do tradicionalismo dos tons de vermelhos na madeira para arcos, outras madeiras com tons amarelados como Handroanthus spp. e Dipteryx spp. ou acastanhados como Diplotropis spp., desde que possuam propriedades adequadas, podem oferecer alternativas de cores e texturas para os músicos. Madeiras de fácil trabalhabilidade, como Mezilaurus itauba e Astronium lecointei não são adequadas para a fabricação dos arcos. Atualmente, todas as madeiras testadas são relativamente fáceis de serem encontradas no comércio madeireiro. Handroanthus spp. e Dipteryx spp. apresentaram o maior potencial para a fabricação de arcos para músicos profissionais. As madeiras deM. itauba e A. lecointei não mostraram potencial para os arcos.

A indução da calogênese é a primeira etapa para obtenção de embriões e sementes. Para o controle da calogênese de Caesalpinia echinata, foram usados discos de foliólolos do pau-brasil em diferentes fases de desenvolvimento combinados com os fitorreguladores 2,4-D (0, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 mg/L) e 6-BAP (2,0 mg/L), cultivados em meio de cultura de Murashige e Skoog (1962) acrescido de sacarose (30 g/L), mioinositol (100 mg/L) e ágar (7,5 g/L). Foi testado, também, o efeito de 6-BAP (0, 0,5, 1,0, 2,0, 5,0 e 10 mg/L) no crescimento de ápices meristemáticos. Foliólolos juvenis cultivados com baixa concentração de 2,4-D (5 e 20 mg/L) e foliólolos jovens tratados com altas concentrações de 2,4-D (50 e 100 mg/L) geraram calos sem diferenças significativas entre luz e escuro. Quanto ao controle da oxidação, melhores resultados foram proporcionados pelo carvão ativado, porém inibidores da calogênese. A transferência dos calos do meio de cultura MS com altas concentrações de 2,4-D (5,0; 10,0; e 20,0 mg/L) para meio sem fitorreguladores estimulou a formação de massas pró-embrionárias (MPEs). Os meios livres de fitorreguladores, 2,0 mg/L de 2,4-D e 0,5 mg/L de 2,4-D elevaram o número de calos embriogênicos e de massas pré-embrionárias. Somente em 0,5 mg/L 2,4-D se verificaram algumas estruturas semelhantes a embriões somáticos nas fases globular e codiforme.The present work dealt with the in vitro control of callogenesis of brazilwood. The induction of callogenesis is the first step to obtain embryos and seeds. In order to control the callogenesis of Caesalpinia echinata, leaf discs of brazilwood in different developmental stages were used combined with the growth regulators 2,4-D (0, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 mg/L) and 6-BAP (2,0 mg/L), cultivated in the Murashige and Skoog (1962) medium supplemented with sucrose (30 g/L), myo-inositol (100 mg/L) and agar (7,5 g/L). The effect of 6-BAP (0, 0,5, 1,0, 2,0, 5,0 and 10 mg/L) on the growth of meristematic shoot apexes was also tested. Juvenile leaves cultured with low concentrations of 2,4-D (5 and 20 mg/L) and young leaves treated with high concentrations of 2,4-D (50 and 100 mg/L) produced callus, without presenting significant differences between light and dark. As for the oxidation control, the best results were provided by activated charcoal, which inhibited callogenesis. The transfer of callus from the MS culture medium with high concentrations of 2,4-D (5,0, 10,0 and 20,0 mg/L) to the medium without growth regulators stimulated the formation of pro-embryonic masses (PEMs). The media without growth regulators, 2,0 mg/L of 2,4-D and 0,5 mg/L of 2,4-D, increased the number of embryogenic calluses and pre-embryonic masses. There were structures similar to global and heart shaped somatic embryos only at 0,5 mg/L 2,4-D .

Estudaram-se parâmetros indicativos da maturação de frutos de árvores de Caesalpinia echinata, visando determinar a melhor época de colheita para propagação. Foram utilizadas 10 plantas-matriz cultivadas em Mogi-Guaçu, SP, nas quais foram etiquetadas 250 inflorescências no pico da floração para acompanhamento da maturação. As coletas de frutos tiveram início a partir da 5ª semana após a antese, prolongando-se até a 9ª, com intervalos de sete dias. Em cada coleta, analisaram-se os parâmetros: comprimento, largura e teor de água dos frutos; teor de água das sementes (após três dias de exposição ao sol para deiscência do fruto e extração da semente); porcentagem de germinação e peso de matéria seca de frutos, sementes e plântulas. Observou-se, ainda, a coloração dos frutos como parâmetro visual de maturação das sementes. O experimento foi repetido por três anos. Os testes de germinação foram realizados em caixas Gerbox contendo vermiculita umedecida com água destilada. As sementes foram colocadas para germinar em câmara regulada para 30 ºC e fotoperíodo de 12 horas O delineamento estatístico utilizado foi inteiramente casualizado com quatro repetições de 25 sementes por parcela, nos anos de 1991, 1992 e 1993. As leituras de germinação foram realizadas nos 4º e 8º dias após a semeadura. Pelos resultados, conclui-se que o momento ideal para coleta dos frutos de C. echinata é no estádio de pré-dispersão (entre a 8º e 9º após a antese) visualizado através da coloração, quando estes mudam de verde para castanho.Several indicative parameters regarding fruit maturity of Caesalpinia echinata were studied in order to establish the ideal harvest time. Ten matrix plants were cultivated in Moji-Guaçu, SP (22°11' to 1022°18' S and 47°13' to 47°20' WG), altitude between 600m and 730m. The climate of the region is classified as Cwa. Two hundred and fifty blossoms were tagged during the the peak blooming period for maturation analysis. Fruit-harvesting schedule ranged from the fifth to the ninth week after anthesis, with seven-day intervals. The following parameters where analyzed for each harvest: fruit length and width; fruit moisture content; seed moisture content (after natural pre-drying); germination percentage; seed, fruit and seedling dry matter weight. Fruit colors were also observed and used as a visual parameter of seed maturation. The experiment was repeated for three years. The germination tests were performed in Gerbox boxes, with vermiculite watered with distilled water. The seeds were set to germinate in B.O.D cameras, at 30°C, with a 12-hour photoperiod. The experimental design was completely randomized with four replications of 25 seeds per plot in 1991, 1992 and 1993. The germination was analyzed on the 4th and 8th days after seeding. The results showed that the ideal harvest time for Brazil-wood fruits is at the pre-dispersion stage, which can be identified visually through colors, when they change from green to chestnut-brown.

Caesalpinia echinata Lam. (pernambuco or pau-brasil) is recognized as the premier raw material for manufacturing stringed instrument bows. Several studies have identified properties considered important in determining the suitability of pernambuco wood for bow manufacture including density, modulus of elasticity (MOE), and, possibly, microfibril angle (MFA). No research has been conducted on how these properties vary within individual trees; however, an understanding of how pernambuco wood properties vary within trees is important as it may assist in the identification of trees or provenances most suited for the establishment of plantations, aid in developing an understanding of management practices on wood property variation for plantation-grown pernambuco and also facilitate the identification of regions within trees that possess optimal properties for bow manufacture. Radial variation in density, MFA and MOE was examined using SilviScan for three radial strips representing differing levels of wood quality in terms of perceived suitability for making high-quality bows. The lowest quality sample showed considerable radial variation compared to the higher quality samples for all properties and it also had the lowest average density. It was not possible to identify a strong pith to bark trend for any of the wood properties examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inflammation is an essential process in many pulmonary diseases in which kinins are generated by protease action on kininogen, a phenomenon that is blocked by protease inhibitors. We evaluated kinin release in an in vivo lung inflammation model in rats, in the presence or absence of CeKI (C. echinata kallikrein inhibitor), a plasma kallikrein, cathepsin G, and proteinase-3 inhibitor, and rCeEI (recombinant C. echinata elastase inhibitor), which inhibits these proteases and also neutrophil elastase. Wistar rats were intravenously treated with buffer (negative control) or inhibitors and, subsequently, lipopolysaccharide was injected into their lungs. Blood, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and lung tissue were collected. In plasma, kinin release was higher in the LPS-treated animals in comparison to CeKI or rCeEI groups. rCeEI-treated animals presented less kinin than CeKI-treated group. Our data suggest that kinins play a pivotal role in lung inflammation and may be generated by different enzymes; however, neutrophil elastase seems to be the most important in the lung tissue context. These results open perspectives for a better understanding of biological process where neutrophil enzymes participate and indicate these plant inhibitors and their recombinant correlates for therapeutic trials involving pulmonary diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A multi-analytical approach for the study of brazilwood and its lake pigments was carried out based on historically accurate reconstructions. Recipes for brazilwood lakes from the fifteenth century technical textLivro de como se fazem as coresand the Winsor & Newton nineteenth century colourman's archive were reproduced and compared. Both primary sources allowed for the successful preparation of brazilwood lake pigments with colours that vary from light pink to dark red. The main steps and ingredients for the manufacture of these pigments were common in both sources, particularly the addition of Al3+in the form of alum, and calcium carbonate (chalk). Reconstructions revealed that the latter acts as a pH buffer and filler, controlling the pH at which the lake pigment precipitates. The main difference between the two sources is that the nineteenth century recipes give the quantities for all ingredients, the precise temperatures and time, and achieved higher relative pigment yields (75% versus 45%). Full chemical characterisation of the reconstructions provided detailed information on the individual steps in the pigment manufacture and revealed that the presence of calcium sulphate dihydrate (gypsum) in the final pigment was a result of its formationin situ. Infrared, reflectance, and fluorescence spectroscopy proved to be essential and complementary techniques: while infrared was used to characterise additives and binders, reflectance and fluorescence data were fundamental for identifying the chromophore. The pigments and paints produced can now be used as standards for the identification and investigation of brazilwood lake pigments found in artworks. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Three species of the genus Brachycoleus Fieber, 1858 known from Iran, B. caucasicus (Poppius, 1912), B. lineellus Jakovlev, 1884, and B. steini Reuter, 1877 are briefly redescribed along with illustrated keys and distribution data provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A madeira de pau-brasil (Caesalpinia echinata Lam.) é mundialmente empregada na confecção de arcos para instrumentos de corda, uma vez que apresenta características únicas de ressonância, densidade, durabilidade, beleza, entre outras qualidades, que a tornam ideal para tal uso. Diferentes amostras de pau-brasil, contudo, fornecem arcos com qualidades distintas. No comércio nacional outras madeiras estão sendo empregadas na produção de arcos. Realizou-se, neste estudo, uma análise qualitativa e quantitativa de diferentes amostras de pau-brasil com o objetivo de apontar diferenças na estrutura da madeira que possam contribuir para o entendimento das causas da variação na qualidade do arco, além da análise de outras espécies objetivando determinar, do ponto de vista estrutural, semelhanças ou diferenças com o pau-brasil. Conclui-se que variações no diâmetro dos vasos, distribuição e quantidade de parênquima axial e orientação dos elementos axiais e radiais são parâmetros que devem ser considerados quando se busca determinar as causas das diferenças na qualidade dos arcos de pau-brasil. Constatou-se que arcos de boa qualidade apresentam grã linheira e textura fina. Esta última característica decorre da menor proporção de vasos cujo diâmetro é reduzido, raios homogêneos e fibras com paredes espessas e/ou muito espessas. Assim, a relação entre a estrutura e a qualidade do arco está diretamente relacionada com as dimensões, a distribuição e a proporção das células do lenho.Pernambuco wood (Caesalpinia echinata Lam.) has special characteristics like resonance, density, durability, and beauty; for this reason, it is considered the best material for stringed instruments bows. Besides pernambuco wood has been used around the world, some samples, and consequently some bows, are better than others. In Brazil, others woody species have been used in the manufacture of bows. In this paper some wood samples of pernambuco wood were analysed in order to verify if it is possible to find differences in their anatomical qualitative and quantitative characteristics that explain the bow quality. The comparative analysis of pernambuco wood samples showed variations in vessel diameter, quantity and distribution of axial parenchyma and orientation of axial and radial wood elements.

Caesalpinia echinata Lam. (pau-brasil) é a árvore nacional do Brasil, possui grande potencial ornamental, estando atualmente em perigo de extinção devido à exploração extrativista. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a germinação das sementes de C. echinata e o crescimento de mudas sob condições de sombreamento. Os experimentos foram conduzidos na Seção de Ornamentais do IBt/SMA, São Paulo, SP. As sementes foram coletadas de frutos maduros, de árvores-matriz no arboreto experimental de C. echinata em Mogi-Guaçu, SP. Os testes de germinação foram realizados nos anos de 1999, 2000 e 2003, com quatro repetições de 25 sementes cada, sendo avaliadas a porcentagem de germinação e o índice de velocidade de emergência (IVE), submetidas a cinco níveis de sombreamento (0, 20, 40, 60 e 80%). Mudas de C. echinata com nove meses de idade foram submetidas aos mesmos tratamentos de sombreamento das sementes, sendo as variáveis analisadas altura da planta, diâmetro do colo e número de folhas. O delineamento estatístico utilizado foi o inteiramente casualizado, com quatro repetições e 24 plantas por parcela, totalizando 96 mudas por tratamento. Os resultados indicaram que a germinação e o IVE não sofreram influência dos níveis de sombreamento testados. O diâmetro do coleto das mudas a pleno sol, a 20 e 40% de sombreamento, não diferiram significativamente entre si, mas dos tratamentos de 60 e 80%.Caesalpinia echinata Lam. (Brazilwood), Brazil's national tree, has ornamental potential, and due to years of exploitation this species has been reduced on the verge of extinction. This study was aimed to evaluate seed germination and seedling growth of brazil wood under shading conditions. The experiments were conducted at the IBt/SMA Ornamental Department, São Paulo-SP. Seeds were harvested from ripe fruits, from trees of the experimental arboretum of brazilwood at Mogí-Guaçu-SP. The germination tests were carried out in 1999, 2000 and 2003 with 4 replicates consisting of 25 seeds, the germination percentage and the speed germination index (SGI), subjected to five shading levels (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%) were evaluated. Nine-month-old brazilwood seedlings were submitted to the same shading treatments and the analyzed variables were seedling heights, stem base diameters and number of leaves. The experimental design was completely randomized with four replicates, and each experimental unit consisted of 24 plants, totaling 96 plants. The obtained results showed that shading levels did not the affect seed germination percentage and SGI. The stem base diameters were not statically significant for full sunlight, 20 and 40% of shading, but they were significant for the treatments with 60 and 80% of shading.

A Área de Proteção Ambiental (APA) da Serra da Capoeira Grande (22º54'10"S e 43º12'27"W) tem área total de 80 ha e é um dos últimos remanescentes florestais com ocorrência natural de Caesalpinia echinata Lam. (pau-brasil) no município do Rio de Janeiro. A estrutura deste importante fragmento florestal foi estudada utilizando-se o método dos quadrantes. Foram alocados 200 pontos amostrais e o critério de inclusão foi de 15 cm de circunferência do tronco a 1,30 m acima do solo. Nos 200 pontos amostrados foram encontradas 44 espécies distribuídas em 36 gêneros e 22 famílias. As famílias que apresentaram maiores valores de importância (VI) foram Solanaceae (com 34,1% do VI), Leguminosae (Mimosoideae com 16,4%, Papilionoideae com 7,9% e Caesalpinioideae com 2,1%), Nyctaginaceae (13%), Anacardiaceae (6,5%) e Flacourtiaceae (6,1%). As espécies com maior número de indivíduos na área apresentaram também maior VI: Metternichia princeps Mik. (com 40,4% dos indivíduos e 33,7% do VI), Pseudopiptadenia contorta (DC.) G.P. Lewis & M.P. Lima (9,3 e 12,6%), Guapira hirsuta (Choisy) Lundell (7,5 e 7,8%), Astronium fraxinifolium Schott ex Spreng. (5,6 e 5,7%). Caesalpinia echinata Lam. apresentou 2,4% dos indivíduos amostrados e 2,1% do VI. A distribuição diamétrica da comunidade, assim como da maioria das principais populações, apresentou grande número de indivíduos nas menores classes, decrescendo gradualmente. Este fato reflete uma abundante regeneração da maioria das espécies amostradas.The Área de Proteção Ambiental Serra da Capoeira Grande is a 80 ha site and one of the last forest remnants in Rio de Janeiro municipality where Caesalpinia echinata Lam. (brazilwood) occurs naturally. Trees were sampled according to the point-centered-quarter method. The inclusion criteria was PBH ³ 15 cm and a total of 200 points were surveyed. 44 species were identified, belonging to 36 genera and 22 botanical families The families with the higher importance value indices (VI) were Solanaceae (34.1%), Leguminosae (Mimosoideae with 16.4%, Papilionoideae with 7.9% and Caesalpinioideae with 2.1%), Nyctaginaceae (13.0%), Anacardiaceae (6.5%) and Flacourtiaceae (6.1%). The species with greater number of individuals were the same with higher VI. They are: Metternichia princeps Mik. with 40.4% of the individuals and 33.7% of the total VI, Pseudopiptadenia contorta G.P. Lewis & M.P. Lima (9.3 and 12.6%), Guapira hirsuta (Choisy) Lundell (7.5 and 7.8%), Astronium fraxinifolium Schott ex Spreng. (5.6 and 5.7%). Caesalpinia echinata Lam. followed with 2.4% of the individuals and 2.1% of the total VI. Trunk diameters of the individuals are concentred in the smallest classes diameter distribution of the most important species sampled indicate abundant regeneration.

Este artigo apresenta o estudo davariação isoenzimática em Caesalpinia echinata L.(pau-brasil). Onze sistemas enzimáticos (ACP,DIA, EST, G6PDH, GOT, LAP, MDH, PGI, PRX,SKDH e 6PGDH) codificando dezoito locos (Acp-1,Est-3, Dia-1, G6pdh-1, Got-1, Lap-1, Mdh-1,Mdh-2, Mdh-3, Pgi-1, Pgi-2, Prx-1, Prx-2, Prx-3,Prx-4, Skdh-1, 6pgdh-1 e 6pgdh-2) foraminvestigados. Entre esses locos, Pgi-1 e Got-1foram detectados como monomórficos. Três locos(Mdh-2, G6pdh-1 e 6pgdh-1) não tiveram suaherança analisada devido à ausência de progênies deárvores heterozigotas na amostra. A herançamendeliana simples foi confirmada para dez locos(Acp-1, Dia-1, Est-3, Lap-1, Mdh-1, Mdh-3, Prx-1,Prx-3, Skdh-1 e 6pgdh-2). Três locos (Pgi-2, Prx-2e Prx-4) apresentaram desvios altamentesignificativos (P < 0,01) para a hipótese desegregação regular 1:1. As relações dedesequilíbrios de ligações foram avaliadas em 120pares de locos isoenzimáticos. Seis pares de locosapresentaram ligação: Mdh-3:Dia-1, Mdh-3:Prx-3,6pgdh-1:Pgi-2, 6pgdh-1:Prx-1, 6pgdh-2:Prx-3 ePgi-2:Prx-4.This article presents a study of isozymevariation in Caesalpinia echinata L. (brazilwood).Eleven isozyme systems (ACP, DIA, EST,G6PDH, GOT, LAP, MDH, PGI, PRX, SKDH and6PGDH) codifying eighteen loci (Acp-1, Est-3,Dia-1, G6pdh-1, Got-1, Lap-1, Mdh-1, Mdh-2,Mdh-3, Pgi-1, Pgi-2, Prx-1, Prx-2, Prx-3, Prx-4,Skdh-1, 6pgdh-1 and 6pgdh-2) were investigated.Among these loci, Pgi-1 and Got-1 weremonomorphic. Three loci (Mdh-2, G6pdh-1 and6pgdh-1) were not evaluated for inheritance duethe lack of families from heterozygous mothertrees in the sampling. Mendelian inheritance wasconfirmed for ten allozyme loci (Acp-1, Dia-1,Est-3, Lap-1, Mdh-1, Mdh-3, Prx-1, Prx-3, Skdh-1,and 6pgdh-2). Three loci (Pgi-2, Prx-2 and Prx-4)showed significant deviations (P < 0.01) from expectedsegregation 1:1 hypothesis. Linkage relationshipswere examined for 120 pairs of allozyme loci.Six pairs of loci showed linked: Mdh-3:Dia-1,Mdh-3:Prx-3, 6pgdh-1:Pgi-2, 6pgdh-1:Prx-1,6pgdh-2:Prx-3 and Pgi-2:Prx-4.

Brazilin is a nearly colorless dye precursor obtained from the heartwood of several species of trees including brazilwood from Brazil, sappanwood from Asia and the Pacific islands, and to a minor extent from two other species in Central America, northern South America and the Caribbean islands. Its use as a dyeing agent and medicinal in Asia was recorded in the 2nd century BC, but was little known in Europe until the 12th century AD. Asian supplies were replaced in the 16th century AD after the Portuguese discovered vast quantities of trees in what is now Brazil. Overexploitation decimated the brazilwood population to the extent that it never fully recovered. Extensive environmental efforts currently are underway to re-create a viable, sustainable population. Brazilin is structurally similar to the better known hematoxylin, thus is readily oxidized to a colored dye, brazilein, which behaves like hematein. Attachment of the dye to fabric is by hydrogen bonding or in conjunction with certain metallic mordants by coordinative bonding. For histology, most staining procedures involve aluminum (brazalum) for staining nuclei. In addition to textile dyeing and histological staining, brazilin and brazilein have been and still are used extensively in Asian folk medicine to treat a wide variety of disorders. Recent pharmacological studies for the most part have established a scientific basis for these uses and in many cases have elucidated the biochemical pathways involved. The principal use of brazilwood today is for the manufacture of bows for violins and other stringed musical instruments. The dye and other physical properties of the wood combine to produce bows of unsurpassed tonal quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fourteen cassane-type diterpenoids, echinalides H–U, were isolated from the stem of Caesalpinia echinata Lam. (Leguminosae). The structures of the echinalides were elucidated by spectroscopic investigation, including 2D NMR spectroscopic analysis. The structures of echinalide H and echinalide T were further confirmed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The absolute configurations of echinalides H, I, J and K were determined by CD spectroscopy. Additionally, the absolute configurations of echinalide L and M were determined by chemical conversion from echinalide H. These compounds were evaluated for inhibitory activity against nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). Echinalide M showed the most potent inhibitory activity (47 ± 11% at 5 μM) toward NF-κB-responsive gene expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seed storage at room temperature is an important and low-cost tool for ex situ conservation. However, the high rates of seed deterioration could reduce the potential for storage in this condition. Therefore, the knowledge of the suitable water content for this type of storage plays a critical role. This study aimed to assess the time required to stabilize the relative humidity (RH) in sealed flasks with saturated salt solutions, with or without the introduction of seeds of Caesalpinia echinata, as well as to assess the viability of these seeds stored in environments with different hygroscopic equilibrium. The results showed that 2 and about 12 days are needed to stabilize the RH, respectively, without or with the seeds. The amount of saturated salt solutions in this airtight environment influences both the speed to equilibrate the RH and the final values of the RH. Seeds of Caesalpinia echinata tolerate drying up to 5% water content (wet basis); however, the viability of these seeds at room temperature is maintained for short periods even at low water content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The volatile constituents obtained from a static cryogenic headspace of Caesalpinia echinata Lam. (Leguminosae) showed E-beta-ocimene as the major compound (57.2%), beside other monoterpenes, C6 derivatives like n-hexanal and (E)-2-hexenal and nitrogen compounds such as indole and methyl anthranilate. From the essential oil of the leaves obtained by hydrodistillation in a Clevenger apparatus, (E)-3-hexen-1-ol was identified as the major constituent while phenolic compounds were the most representative class of secondary metabolites.

A chemical analysis was performed on the sapwood, heartwood and bark of Haematoxylon brasiletto Karsten (palo de brasil) to identify its main chemical components. Ash, ash analysis, extractives, holocellulose and lignin content were determined. The results ranged of 2,88% to 18,20% for ash, 9,84% to 29,70% total extractives, 44,82% to 66,20% for holocellulose and 25,37% to 31,70% for lignin. The variance analysis of the results indicated that the amount of chemical components is statistically different (P<0,01) between types of wood and bark except cyclohexane extractives and lignin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Seeds of brazilwood usually have their germinability quickly reduced if stored under natural conditions. Low temperatures, mainly sub-zero, can extend this viability for at least two years. However, there is no information about the germination behavior of these seeds for longer periods, aiming at the germoplasm bank formation. The objective of this work was to evaluate the viability of brazilwood seeds during five-year storage period at 2, 8 and -18 °C. Before storage, seeds were subjected to artificial drying (50 °C) until the moisture content reached 10%. The germination and the normal seedling development of seeds maintained at low temperatures did not differ from other treatment during the first year of storage. However, after two years only seeds stored at -18 °C kept high germination percentage. Seeds stored for five years at -18 °C showed high values of germination and normal seedling development; however, after this period it was possible to identify some symptoms of seed deterioration. Storage at sub-zero temperatures is considered as an important initiative to maintain Caesalpinia echinata seed banks, contributing to the conservation of plant biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] CeEI, a Kunitz-type inhibitor, was purified from C. echinata (Brazil-wood) seeds. [•] CeEI inhibits elastase, cathepsin G and proteinase 3. [•] Elastase activity was determinant to lung edema establishment and progression. [•] CeEI is an efficient elastase inhibitor reducing lung edema. [•] CeEI is a useful tool to study the physiology of acute lung injury. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Brazilwood has been traditionally used as food and beverage colorant in Indonesia. The ethanol extract of brazilwood (Caesalpinia sappan L.) was subjected to the investigation of major natural dyestuff component. The dried heartwood was subjected to an extraction with 50% ethanol (1:3 v/v) at 80°C for 30 min, followed by lyophillization to crystalize the extract. The extract components were separated by using Sephadex G-15 gel filtration chromatography eluted with 40% ethanol under UV-Vis detection. This step yielded 5 fractions, FI-FV, of which FII and FIII were the major fractions, comprising 25 and 70% by weight of the applied dried extract, respectively. Both fractions had different UV-Vis spectra as well as infrared spectra observed by FTIR. Fraction FIII which visually had a deep red color, had the strong absorption of carbonyl group in its IR spectra. This major dyestuff fraction was purified further by RP-HPLC with multiwavelength detector using a solvent mixture of 65% acetonitrile and 35% isopropanol as a mobile phase. The purified fraction was then characterized by FTIR and ESI-MS. The infrared and mass spectra confirmed that brazilein with a molecular weight of 284 was the major dyestuff component of the ethanol extract of brazilwood. This finding can be utilized for the production of brazilein standard for the laboratory use to analyze brazilein in foods and beverages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: An investigation of the ethanolic extract from stems of Caesalpinia echinata Lam (Leguminosae-Caesalpinioideae) led to the isolation of five new cassane diterpenes along with known lambertianic acid. Their structures were determined based on spectroscopic methods. A preliminary study on leishmanicidal activity demonstrated that compounds 1, 2 and 6 were found to inhibit the growth of amastigote-like forms of Leishmania amazonensis without affecting mononuclear cells obtained from human peripheral blood. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The efficiency of eight different procedures used for the extraction of natural dyes was evaluated using contemporary wool samples dyed with cochineal, madder, woad, weld, brazilwood and logwood. Comparison was made based on the LC-DAD peak areas of the natural dye's main components which had been extracted from the wool samples. Among the tested methods, an extraction procedure with NaEDTA in water/DMF (1:1, v/v) proved to be the most suitable for the extraction of the studied dyes, which presented a wide range of chemical structures. The identification of the natural dyes used in the making of an eighteenth century Arraiolos carpet was possible using the NaEDTA/DMF extraction of the wool embroidery samples and an LC-DAD-MS methodology. The effectiveness of the NaEDTA/DMF extraction method was particularly observed in the extraction of weld dye components. Nine flavone derivatives previously identified in weld extracts could be identified in a single historical sample, confirming the use of this natural dye in the making of Arraiolos carpets. Indigo and brazilwood were also identified in the samples, and despite the fact that these natural dyes were referred in the historical recipes of Arraiolos dyeing, it is the first time that the use of brazilwood is confirmed. Mordant analysis by ICP-MS identified the widespread use of alum in the dyeing process, but in some samples with darker hues, high amounts of iron were found instead. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caesalpinia echinata Lam. (pau-brasil) is a Brazilian tree with symbolic character for Brazilian forestry, which is at risk of extinction because of illegal logging activities and exportation as raw material for bows of string instruments. Additional studies are required to select substitutes for pau-brasil, i.e., other wood species are being sought with potentially suitable characteristics for bow manufacture. The present paper is dedicated to the evaluation of six native Brazilian woods by comparing their anatomical features, specific gravity, speed of sound propagation, and dynamic modulus of elasticity in relation to the corresponding properties of C. echinata that are considered as standard for bow manufacture. The results showed that length, diameter, lumen diameter, and wall thickness of fibers are the most important variables contributing to specific gravity. Additionally, ray dimensions influenced sonic velocity. The values of dynamic modulus of elasticity are directly related to dimensions of rays and fibers. Among the six woods included in this study, Dipteryx spp., Handroanthus spp., and Hymenaea spp. were considered as the best alternatives to C. echinata wood as sources of bow construction. The bows from the first two woods were already tested by professional musicians and their suitability was certified. The Diplotropis spp. wood also showed promising characteristics. Mezilaurus itauba and Astronium lecointei do not have the necessary properties for bows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We intended to establish how efficient the leaf antioxidant responses of C. echinata are against oxidative environmental conditions observed in an urban environment and their relations to growth and biomass parameters. Plants were grown for 15 months in four sites: Congonhas and Pinheiros, affected by pollutants from vehicular emissions; Ibirapuera, affected by high O3 concentrations; and a greenhouse with filtered air. Fifteen plants were quarterly removed from each site for analysis of antioxidants, growth and biomass. Plants growing in polluted sites showed alterations in their antioxidants. They were shorter, had thicker stems and produced less leaf biomass than plants maintained under filtered air. The fluctuations in the levels of antioxidants were significantly influenced by combined effects of climatic and pollution variables. The higher were the antioxidant responses and the concentrations of pollutant markers of air contamination in each site the slower were the growth and biomass production. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

AbstractA total of 30 Caesalpinia echinata(pernambuco) sticks were ranked based on their suitability for making high quality bows and were assigned to one of the three following categories: 0=very poor to poor, 1=good to very good, and 2=excellent. From the end of each stick a sample was cut for wood property and near infrared (NIR) spectroscopic analysis. Wood properties measured included air-dry density, extractives content, microfibril angle, stiffness and wood color. NIR spectra were evaluated by principal component analysis (PCA) and on the PC scores. Poor quality samples were discriminated from those of good to very good and excellent quality; however, samples from the two higher quality groups were mixed. Based on relationships observed between PC scores and wood properties, we suggest that, of the measured properties, density and stiffness were the most important in sample discrimination based on quality. Samples ranked in the excellent category had high average density (1119 kg m-3) and stiffness (25.2 GPa) and relatively low extractives content (21.2%) compared to samples in the very poor to poor category (density= 938 kg m-3, stiffness=18.9 GPa and extractives content=24.9%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aceria inusitata Britto and Navia n. sp. (Acari: Eriophyidae) is described from protogynes, deutogynes and two forms of males occurring under a 'patches of webbing' from 'pau-brasil,' Caesalpinia echinata L. (Caesalpiniaceae), leaves. This is the first example of a deuterogynous eriophyid mite in tropical regions with two forms of males, one resembling the protogyne and the other the deutogyne. In addition, biological observations are presented. Aberoptus cerostructor Flechtmann, is given a new generic assignment, Aceria cerostructor n. comb. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Caesalpinia crista seed extracts were investigated in the laboratory against Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner). The extracts exhibited powerful antifeedant and growth disruption activity. The toxic symptoms of the poisoned larvae included reduction in weight gain and mortality of larvae and pupae, larval-pupal intermediates and malformed adults. Maximum anti-feedance is caused by methanol extract (AI50=0.0186%), followed by hexane extract (0.0212%), ethyl acetate extract (0.0416%), butanol extract (0.0767%) and aqueous extract (0.2199%). The larval mortality ranged from 10.00 to 70.00% in different extracts. The 50% larval growth inhibition recorded at 3DAT was statistically at par by methanol and hexane extract. The percent 150 values for inhibiting normal adult emergence were 0.0287, 0.0325, 0.0485, 0.0977 and 0.0547% for methanol, hexane, ethyl acetate, aqueous and butanol extract. The biosafety evaluation of these extracts carried out against the predator, Coccinella septumpunctata showed no mortality of the adults till nine days after treatment. Though the observation taken at 10 DAT, showed slight mortality of adults by methanol extract at both 5.0 and 1.0% concentration. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The effects induced by long-term (30 day) and short-term (6h) exposures to ozone on the physiological parameters in young plants of Caesalpinia echinata Lam., a Brazilian tree species, were determined. Potted plants were maintained in open-top chambers in Valencia, Spain, under charcoal filtered air (mean O3 level: 29μgm3), nonfiltered air (NF; 43μgm3), and nonfiltered air plus O3 (NF+O3; 68μgm3), simulating prevailing concentrations observed in the city of São Paulo, Brazil, during spring months (50μgm3 in 2002). In the plants kept in NF+O3 for 30 days, although no foliar visible injuries were observed, the net carbon assimilation rate was reduced to 50%, stomatal conductance 42%, and transpiration 40%, when compared to the results for the NF plants. No changes in antioxidants, in leaf, stem, and root biomass, and in the root/shoot ratio were observed. Significant reductions were observed in gas exchange and in PSII photochemical efficiency (F v /F m) after 6h of exposure to an O3 peak. The species was shown to be sensitive to ambient O3 concentrations measured in São Paulo. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Caesalpinia echinata is a tree belonging to the Leguminosae family. The red color of the trunk, looking like burning wood (‘brasa’ in Portuguese), is the origin of the name Brazil. Seeds of leguminous plants contain high amounts of serine proteinase inhibitors that can affect different biological processes. Here we show that a protein isolated from seeds of C. echinata is able to inhibit enzymes that participate in blood coagulation and fibrinolysis. This inhibitor (CeKI) was purified to homogeneity by ion exchange and reversed-phase chromatography. SDS-PAGE indicated a single polypeptide chain with a molecular mass of 20 kDa. CeKI inhibits human plasma kallikrein ( K i =3.1 nM), plasmin ( K i =0.18 nM), factor XIIa ( K i =0.18 nM), trypsin ( K i =21.5 nM) and factor Xa ( K i =0.49 mM). CeKI inhibited kinin release from highmolecular- mass kininogen by kallikrein in vitro . The N-terminal sequence, determined by automatic Edman degradation, identified the inhibitor as a member of the Kunitz family. The secondary structure, determined by circular dichroism, is mainly a random coil followed by ß-sheet structure. The action of CeKI on enzymes of the blood-clotting intrinsic pathway was confirmed by prolongation of the activated partial thromboplastin time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Caesalpinia echinata and C. ferrea var. ferrea have different seed behaviours and seed and fruit types. Comparison of the seed ontogeny and anatomy partly explained the differences in seed behaviour between these two species of Brazilian legumes; some differences were also related to fruit development. The seed coat in C. ferrea consisted of two layers of osteosclereids, as well as macrosclereids and fibres, to form a typical legume seed coat, whereas C. echinata had only macrosclereids and fibres. In C. echinata, the developing seed coat had paracytic stomata, a feature rarely found in legume seeds. These seed coat features may account for the low longevity of C. echinata seeds. The embryogeny was similar in both species, with no differences in the relationship between embryo growth and seed growth. The seeds of both species behaved as typical endospermic seeds, despite their different morphological classification (exendospermic orthodox seeds were described for C. echinata and endospermic orthodox seeds for C. ferrea). Embryo growth in C. ferrea accelerated when the sclerenchyma of the pericarp was developing, whereas embryonic growth in C. echinata was associated with the conclusion of spine and secretory reservoir development in the pericarp. Other features observed included an endothelial layer that secreted mucilage in both species, a nucellar summit, which grew up into the micropyle, and a placental obturator that connected the ovarian tissue to the ovule in C. ferrea. © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2004, 146, 57–70. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habitat fragmentation represents the single most serious threat to the survival of tropical ecosystems. In formulating strategies to counteract the detrimental effects of fragmentation, knowledge of the levels and patterns of genetic diversity within and between natural populations is vital to the establishment of any conservation programme. We utilized polymorphic chloroplast microsatellite markers to analyse genetic diversity in populations of the endangered tropical tree Caesalpinia echinata Lam. representing the entire extant range of the species. Levels of within-population diversity were low, with only two of seven populations studied displaying any variation. The vast majority of the genetic variation was partitioned between geographical regions (36%) and between populations within regions (55%). These levels of genetic structuring, coupled with a calculated pollen-to-seed flow ratio of ≈ 6.7:1, suggest that there has been little gene flow between the three major geographical regions over an extended period. Thus, the current tripartite distribution of the species is more consistent with the existence of separate glacial refugia, rather than reflecting any anthropogenic effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, the vibrational spectra (FT-Raman and infrared spectra) of brazilin, the major component of brazilwood Caesalpinia echinata (from Bahia, Brazil), and brazilein, the oxidised pigment, are investigated. The FT-Raman spectra of the compounds show different patterns in the carbonyl stretching region, where brazilein presents a Raman feature at 1697 cm−1 that is tentatively assigned to a coupled vibrational mode described by C&z.dbnd6;O and aromatic C&z.dbnd6;C stretching. Infrared measurements are used to support this assignment. The spectral region between 1700 and 1500 cm−1 is also proposed as a fingerprint for brazilin and brazilein. Comparisons with some quinones and polyalcohols as parent molecules and other deep red resin pigments such as “dragon’s blood” are undertaken to assist the vibrational assignment. As a test of the spectroscopic protocol for the identification of these pigments in natural brazilwoods, an 80-year-old archival specimen of Caesalpinia echinata was analysed non-destructively and the feature of brazilein shown from the Raman spectrum. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Em experimento conduzido no Insituto de Botânica, em São Paulo (SP), foram observados os efeitos de condições ambientais sobre o crescimento de mudas de pau-brasil. Três níveis de luminosidade e dois de temperatura foram combinados para obter os ambientes de crescimento dessas mudas. Os tratamentos constituíram-se de quatro ambientes: a) casa de vegetação, com sombreamento de 50%; b) pleno-sol, em ambiente aberto; c) ripado, com 50% de sombreamento e d) telado, com 80% de sombreamento. Em cada ambiente foram colocadas mudas de C. echinata com 17 meses de idade e, nessa época e após 12 e 24 meses, avaliaram-se a altura das plantas, o diâmetro do caule à altura do colo e o número de folhas por planta. Os resultados mostraram aumento na velocidade de crescimento de mudas sombreadas, quando o sombreamento foi de até 50%. Entretanto, as mudas sombreadas em ambiente aberto (ripado) cresceram mais rapidamente em altura, não tendo o mesmo aumento na velocidade de crescimento para diâmetro do caule e para número de folhas. Já nas mudas em casa de vegetação, também sombreadas em 50%, o aumento na velocidade de crescimento foi mais equilibrado. O sombreamento de 80% mostrou-se prejudicial ao crescimento das mudas, diminuindo a velocidade de crescimento dos três parâmetros avaliados.

Forest fragments along the Atlantic coastland of Brazil have been highly impacted by extensive human activities for the last 400 years. Caesalpinia echinata (Leguminosae– Caesalpinioideae), brazilwood, was overexploited during this period due to its economical importance as a dye. As a result, the species has become endangered and today its total population size is very restricted. We have assessed the distribution of genetic variation between five natural populations of brazilwood by means of RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) markers. Of the total genetic variability, 28.5% was attributable to differences between two geographical groups, 29.6% to population differences within groups and 42.0% to individual differences within populations. The high level of population differentiation observed is in contrast to that expected for a primarily outcrossed woody perennial plant, and suggests that there may be a degree of inbreeding. Our results are in agreement with previous studies which postulated that C. echinata has always occurred in clumps, being common in some places but rare in between. From a conservation point of view, different populations representing different regions should be protected and, yet, plants with different origins should not be synthesized into populations in a recovery process at the risk of loss and dilution of genetic information. This study demonstrates that RAPD markers were effective in establishing a clear correlation between genetic and geographical distance and in identifying areas of maximum diversity, and may be used as an initial approach to assess the partitioning of genetic variation in this endangered species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]