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Background: Due to the unpredictable nature of disasters, it is crucial to anticipate, define and divide tasks as preparedness activities to respond efficiently. This is because the organizations involved in, becoming aware of their own tasks and other organizations' tasks. The aim of this study is to explore disparities in the viewpoints of members of Kerman University of medical sciences and Red Crescent in emergent tasks after Bam Earthquake in Iran. Materials and Methods: During January and February 2017 a total of 30 members from Kerman Red Crescent and Kerman University of Medical Sciences were recruited through snowball sampling with exploratory interviews and Self-administered questionnaire. The content validity of the questions was tested through obtaining opinion of expert which was acceptable (CVR=0.6, CVI=0.8). Results: The results of our study showed that there was no predefined agreement about emergent tasks over response phase to the Bam earthquake; buried corpses, and management of received national and international aids from other organizations. Also, involved organizations were not aware the specific tasks of other organizations. Conclusion: During the disaster response phase in Bam earthquake, there was no agreement about the responsible of organizations for undertaking emergent tasks. This disparity was a barrier for effective response for involved organization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: One of the topics in health psychology is the positive effects of psychological trauma on people encountered a trauma and determining the facilitating factors of these positive effects. The present study was conducted to evaluate the relationship of posttraumatic growth with religious coping and social support among earthquake victims of Bam City, Iran, in 2015. Materials and Methods: The present study was a correlation study in which 230 participants from Bam were selected using cluster sampling method. The relevant data were collected using Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI), Religious Coping Scale (RCOPE), and Multiple Scale of Social Support (MSPSS). Then the obtained data were analyzed in SPSS performing central tendency and dispersion tests, t test, variance analysis and correlation coefficients. Results: The total Mean±SD scores of posttraumatic growth, religious coping, and perceived social support were 3.66±0.61, 3.53±0.54 and 5.37±1.24, respectively. There was a significant positive correlation between the total scores of posttraumatic growth and religious coping (P=0.0001, r=0.43). Conclusion: According to the results of the present study, improving religious coping and perceived social support could increase posttraumatic growth and provide better conditions for living and decreasing society's problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The advance of the surface deformation measurement from synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) provides an opportunity of reinterpretation for the past controversial event in the geoscience community. According to the development of the multiple-aperture interferometry (MAI) method, three-dimensional (3D) surface displacements can be estimated with few centimetres accuracy by integrating InSAR and MAI observations. In this study, we provided a renewed fault model of the 2003 Bam earthquake using the advanced method. The 3D deformation map showed the clear distribution pattern of the right-lateral strike-slip fault as well as the additional information of an asymmetry of the surface deformation. To determine the optimal model parameters, we employed a two-segment fault model considering the multiple segments. As a result, two sub-parallel fault segments showing N-S trend were obtained. The model parameters of the second segment have relatively large uncertainties though, the first segment which is presumed as the causative fault of the Bam event has been well-modelled with precise model parameters. The more constrained fault model based on the 3D deformation field enabled us to suggest a possibility of a new interpretation and the better understanding of the fault behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: This study aimed at investigating the burden of injuries, including spinal cord injuries and limb amputation, caused by the Bam earthquake. Materials and Methods: The data related to morbidity of spinal cord injuries were collected from records provided by State Welfare Organization of Iran. Then, morbidity and mortality data for amputation and also mortality of spinal cord injuries were obtained from a previous study using the network scale-up method. Then, we followed the World Health Organization guidelines to assess the burden of this disease, and then years of life lost (YLL) and years of life lost due to disability (YLD) were calculated. Results: The disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) caused by the spinal cord injury were 15,435 years. YLL due to premature mortality was 13,134 and YLD was 2301 years and the number of DALY caused by limb amputation was equal to 2184, all of which were due to YLD. Conclusions: According to the results of the present study, spinal cord injuries and amputations resulting from the earthquake impose many burdens on society. This provides outcomes and evidence for policymaking and planning in the field of health care for policymakers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses the lessons learned from the earthquake reconstruction in Ahar-Varzaghan, East Azarbaijan, Iran. Following the rescue and relief operations, the construction of emergency shelters and temporary housing, a reconstruction plan for residential houses in the rural areas was prepared. On the basis of the previous Iranian experience of earthquake reconstruction, especially in the Bam earthquake, new lessons were found which are highlighted here. This experience and lessons could be useful for other governments and agencies in future reconstructions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this research, a semi-automated building damage detection system is addressed under the umbrella of high-spatial resolution remotely sensed images. The aim of this study was to develop a semi-automated fuzzy decision making system using Genetic Algorithm (GA). Our proposed system contains four main stages. In the first stage, post-event optical images were pre-processed. In the second stage, textural features were extracted from the pre-processed post-event optical images using Haralick texture extraction method. Afterwards, in the third stage, a semi-automated Fuzzy-GA (Fuzzy Genetic Algorithm) decision making system was used to identify damaged buildings from the extracted texture features. In the fourth stage, a comprehensive sensitivity analysis was performed to achieve parameters of GA leading to more accurate results. Finally, the accuracy of results was assessed using check and test samples. The proposed system was tested over the 2010 Haiti earthquake (Area 1 and Area 2) and the 2003 Bam earthquake (Area 3). The proposed system resulted in overall accuracies of 76.88 ± 1.22%, 65.43 ± 0.29%, and 90.96 ± 0.15% over Area 1, Area 2, and Area 3, respectively. On the one hand, based on the concept of the proposed Fuzzy-GA decision making system, the automation level of this system is higher than other existing systems. On the other hand, based on the accuracy of our proposed system and four advanced machine learning techniques, i.e., bagging, boosting, random forests, and support vector machine, in the detection of damaged buildings, it seems that our proposed system is robust and efficient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assesses the aftershock activity of two earthquakes that occurred on December 20, 2010 with magnitude of M N 6.5 (Global CMT M w 6.5) and January 27, 2011 with magnitude of M N 6.0 (Global CMT M w 6.2) in the Rigan region of southeastern Iran. This study has been done by assessing the statistical properties of the aftershock sequences associated with each of these earthquakes, namely b -value of Gutenberg–Richter relation, partitioning of radiated seismic energy, p -value of modified Omori law and the D C -value associated with the fractal dimension. The b -values of b = 0.89 ± 0.08 and b = 0.88 ± 0.08 were calculated for first main shock and second main shock sequence respectively. This suggests that this region is characterized by large differential stress; the genesis of large aftershock activity in a short time interval gives power this. Further, 2.2% of the whole energy is related with the aftershocks activity for first main shock sequence while 97.8% is associated with main shock; for second sequence, 20% of the total energy is associated with the aftershocks activity while 80% is associated with main shock. The p -values of 1.1 ± 0.12 and 1.1 ± 0.1 were calculated for first and second main shocks sequence respectively, which imply fast decay rate of aftershocks and high surface heat flux. A value of the spatial fractal dimension ( D c ) equal to 2.34 ± 0.03 and 2.54 ± 0.02 for first and second main shocks sequence respectively, which reveals random spatial distribution and source in a two-dimensional plane that is being filled-up by fractures. Moreover, we then use the models to calculate the Coulomb stress change to appraise coming seismic hazard by inspecting the static Coulomb stress field due to these two main shocks for the recognition of the conceivable regions of aftershocks activity. The first main shock increased stress by more than 0.866 bars at the hypocenter of the second main shock, thus promoting the failure. In addition, the cumulative coseismic Coulomb stress changes due to the reveals that most of the aftershocks happened in the region of increased Coulomb stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we tracked and analyzed the reconstruction process in Bam, Iran, after the city was struck by an earthquake with a M of 6.6 on December 26, 2003. We adopted three approaches to comprehensively assess the city's post-earthquake reconstruction and to shed light on the progress and sustainability of disaster recovery projects. We applied the following methodology. First, we obtained official statistics and reports that included quantitative and qualitative evaluations of the reconstruction process to evaluate the overall outcome of the government's reconstruction projects. Second, we examined photographs taken during field surveys conducted in 2004, 2007, and 2014 to assess changes within the city. Last, we analyzed three satellite images of Bam-the first taken 3 months before the earthquake, the second immediately after the earthquake, and the third 8 years after the earthquake-to assess the progress of reconstruction work and changes in land cover and land use. The results indicated that considerable progress had been made in reconstructing some of the damaged areas. However, progress was relatively slow in severely damaged areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Floods, hurricanes, landslides, hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes are events that a large group of people on earth are affected. In December 2003, the residents of Bam, Iran experienced an earthquake that measured 6.6 on the Richter scale and destroyed more than 90% of the city. The purpose of this study was to investigate obstacles against effective crisis management with considering service received by individuals in the Bam earthquake. In this study, domestic journals, foreign dissertations in Persian bases such as Google scholar, Magiran, IranMedex, SID and in English bases such as PubMed, Web of Science, Google scholar were used. The results of this study showed that there were many problems in various aspects of planning including: lack of coherent programs, lack of attention to the needs of health care, poor coordination between agencies and organizations and lack of appropriate training of volunteers and people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A review of the recent post-disaster recovery interventions in developing countries shows convergent trends in policies and practices. The World Bank has been in a position to exert its influence on post-disaster housing and livelihood recovery interventions, which has resulted in converging policies and practices. This paper focuses on the nexus between housing and livelihood recovery after disasters, highlighting the importance of rethinking the existing sector-based disaster recovery interventions. Focusing on the case studies of the 2001 earthquake in Bhuj, Gujarat, and 2003 earthquake in Bam, Iran, and drawing on subsequent major disasters in Sri Lanka and Pakistan, the article analyses a number of shortcomings in knowledge transfer on post-disaster housing and livelihood recovery. This knowledge transfer has rarely exposed and discussed the limitations of these policies, the gaps in knowledge concerning the impacts of these polices or the lessons learned about recurring problems arising from the interpretation and implementation of these policies. More importantly, the article discusses how the prescriptive nature of best practice housing recovery and the sector-based structure of recovery interventions overlook the needs and priorities of households and impact on their ability to achieve recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How can the desired culture of a dictatorial system be transmitted from one generation to another? The focus of dictators on children could be an answer. Factually in such a system, children are located in a value system which teaches them what to do or what not to do in purpose of being good for the political system since the very beginning of their lives. In Iran, the traditional educational system teaches children to act as adults; people who are able to discern which action is bad and which is good. The exceptions are usually the ones who deconstruct the cultural/political structure and begin to resist based on their agencies. In the present paper, we argue the process of education (formal and informal) in Iran based on two sets of material cultural remains. The first is the Qajar (nineteenth- and early twentieth-century photos of children) and the second is the school compositions of 19 students found in the bag of a teacher who died in the devastating earthquake of Bam in 2003, in South Eastern Iran. The bag was found during a contemporary archaeological project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new analytical methodology for computing synthetic seismograms in 3-D anelastic media is applied to the modelling of the local records of the 2003 Bam Mw 6.6 earthquake, Southeastern Iran. The method is based on the combination of the modal summation technique with the asymptotic ray theory. The 3-D models are determined by a set of vertically heterogeneous sections (1-D structures) that are juxtaposed on a regular grid. The distribution of these sections in the grid is done in such a way to satisfy the condition of applicability of the WKBJ approximation, that is, the lateral variation of all the elastic parameters has to be small with respect to the prevailing wavelength. The procedure, described very briefly, has been applied for the area of the destructive 2003 December 26 Bam earthquake Mw 6.6, with a maximum cut-off frequency of 6 Hz. Synthetic seismograms show fine agreement with recorded signals when comparing shapes, amplitudes and spectra and evidence the relevance of 3-D effects. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: The 2003 Bam earthquake (Mw 6.5) occurred in the southeastern Iran on December 26, 2003. We studied S-wave anisotropy using the aftershock data observed at 5 stations in and around the aftershock region. The fast-polarization direction of shear wave splitting at the stations near the aftershock region is almost NE–SW, which corresponds to the maximum compressive stress trend (the P-axis) of the main shock. It is suggested that the inferred anisotropy might be caused by a systematic alignment of cracks resulting from the present-day stress-field. The fast direction at the station just above the fault zone shows EW direction normal to the fault strike. The fault normal alignment of cracks introduces a significant reduction of shear stress of the fault, which suggests a high stress drop and large slip asperity. Another possible explanation for different result at the station from that of other stations is the effect of inhomogeneous velocity structure in and around the fault damaged zone. The delay time of the split S-waves ranges between 20 and 100ms. Large delay time area is found in the shallower part of the fault zone with high aftershock activity. Assuming a uniform distribution of anisotropy inside and outside the aftershock region, we estimated that the crack densities are 0.013 inside and 0.004 outside the aftershock region. It may show more intense cracks within the high active region of aftershocks. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The 2003 Bam, Iran, earthquake caused catastrophic damage to the city of Bam and neighboring villages. Given its magnitude ( M) of 6.5, the damage was remarkably large. Large-amplitude ground motions were recorded at the Bam accelerograph station in the center of Bam city by the Building and Housing Research Center (BHRC) of Iran. We simulated the Bam earthquake acceleration records at three BHRC strong-motion stations-Bam, Abaraq, and Mohammad-Abad-by the empirical Green's function method. Three aftershocks were used as empirical Green's functions. The frequency range of the empirical Green's function simulations was 0.5-10 Hz. The size of the strong motion generation area of the mainshock was estimated to be 11 km in length by 7 km in width. To estimate the parameters of the strong motion generation area, we used 1D and 2D velocity structures across the fault and a combined source model. The empirical Green's function method using a combination of aftershocks produced a source model that reproduced ground motions with the best fit to the observed waveforms. This may be attributed to the existence of two distinct rupture mechanisms in the strong motion generation area. We found that the rupture starting point for which the simulated waveforms best fit the observed ones was near the center of the strong motion generation area, which reproduced near-source ground motions in a broadband frequency range. The estimated strong motion generation area could explain the observed damaging ground motion at the Bam station. This suggests that estimating the source characteristics of the Bam earthquake is very important in understanding the causes of the earthquake damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the participatory reconstruction approach as a means of home loss mitigation strategy for coping with disaster among survivors of the 2003 Bam earthquake. It addresses the housing issue using the sense of place measures to understand households' feelings about their lost and new homes. On the basis of a fieldwork survey, the probability method of stratified sampling is applied to select the target group of 186 households. Findings show a significant correlation between expressions of positive feelings about new homes and the degree of participation in reconstruction. By encompassing demographic characteristics with the above terms, the results have been interpreted to identify the deeper aspects of home for those living in a newly built one that differs a lot from the lost one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – This study aims to examine the impacts of temporary housing on housing reconstruction after disasters using data collected after the December 2003 Bam earthquake. Design/methodology/approach – A questionnaire was developed and completed by 281 disaster-impacted households living in small and large campsites and on site of damaged properties provided by government and non-government agencies. Cross tabulation analyses were carried out to analyze the data. Findings – Results of this study show that the type of temporary housing (campsite and on property site) that had been provided to the victims has impacted the speed, quality and the overall satisfaction of the housing reconstruction. Practical implications – Provision of on-site temporary housing to disaster impacted population where possible could speed up a higher quality and more satisfactory housing reconstruction. Originality/value – This paper provides original research evidences for the relationship between type of temporary housing and housing reconstruction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We studied the 20 December 2010 Rigan earthquake that occurred in southeastern Iran, using the ground-motion simulation based on the stochastic finite-fault model. This earthquake was recorded by 23 stations. The method requires region-specific attenuation and generic site parameters. We first found an empirical function to describe the amplitude decay with distance of shear waves in the Rigan region of Iran. This function results from the analysis of spectral amplitudes of horizontal components from digital records from the Rigan earthquakes. The value of <2s shows a dependence on frequency in the range of 1-24 Hz for the Rigan region. The average frequency-dependent relationship estimated for the region is Qs -- (99 ± i9)y(0-58±o.i2) tjien obtained a spectral decay parameter from the slope of smoothed amplitude of the Fourier spectra of acceleration at higher frequen-cies. The estimated zero-distance Kappa value is 0.06. In the next step, we used these approximate values and the stochastic finite-fault model in an iterative manner to op-timally model the strong ground motion and rupture characteristics of the main event in terms of peak ground acceleration, peak ground velocity, peak ground displace-ment, Arias intensity, the amplitude Fourier spectra, and the response spectra of ground shaking. We compared our simulated results with recorded ones in both the frequency and time domain. Our near-field estimates for the main event is in good conformity with the corresponding near-field estimates reported by other studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two medium-sized earthquakes occurred on 20 December 2010 and 27 January 2011 in Rigan County, Kerman Province, southeastern Iran. According to the dislocation grid search method results, the first event was nearly strike-slip including reverse component (strike 115°, dip 50°, and rake −5°) whereas the second event had some amount of reverse component (strike 125°, dip 75°, and rake −5°). Based on synthetic Green's function deconvolution and aftershock distribution, the down-dip-propagated rupture migrated toward southeast districts with low population distribution, confirming the reason for low casualties. Meanwhile, the aftershock distribution indicates the existence of a new earthquake fault for which we suggest the name 'Rigan earthquake fault.' However, the same aftershock distribution indicates that the second mainshock was inevitably triggered by the first one, most probably along the continuation of the Bam earthquake fault. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The Bam earthquake occurred in an area without any historically recorded major earthquake. Based on active tectonics and CMT solutions the area is under the influence of shortening and right-lateral strike-slip faulting. Seismicity is of a shallow crustal type which is mainly distributed within the Koohbanan–Golbaf, Lakarkooh–Shahdad–Gowk fault systems and the terminal sections of Zagros. In order to detect temporal seismicity anomalies before this earthquake we compiled a catalog from the ISC events and then analyzed it for the magnitude of completeness. After declustering this catalog, changes in seismicity were assessed by the z-value test. The temporal variations indicate a relative decrease in z-value before the Bam earthquake. Additional to seismic quiescence and decrease in b-value before the main shock there are pieces of evidence corresponding to increase in triggered background seismicity after this earthquake. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The Bam earthquake (Mw 6.5) occurred on 26 December 2003 in southeastern Iran, causing a major disaster in the city of Bam. A remarkable vertical peak ground acceleration value of 988 cm/s2 and two horizontal pulses were recorded inside the damaged city. Previous analyses showed that the earthquake was caused by a subsurface rupture on an unknown strike-slip fault. In this study, we attempt to determine the precise fault location and source process of the 2003 Bam earthquake by performing a multiple-time-window linear waveform inversion of teleseismic and strong-motion data, both individually and jointly. We examined the general features of the fault location and the source process by analyzing the teleseismic displacement waveforms and determined the precise features and fault geometry by inverting the three components of strong-motion velocity records. The final estimate of the source process of the 2003 Bam earthquake was determined by joint inversion of the dataseis. Our results show that a single fault model, characterized by the appropriate location of the hypocenter, rake angle variations, and the Rayleigh-like speed of the rupture front can satisfactorily explain the three components of the strong-motion records at BAM station. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Disasters have potential short-term and long-term impacts on employment and employment structures in affected regions. While measuring the full economic impact of a disaster requires sophisticated econometrics and mathematical simulations, conventional regional economic models such as shift-share analysis can be used to assess some of these effects. This paper applies shift-share analysis to understand potential long-term impacts of disasters on employment using the December 2003 Bam earthquake as a case study. The results provide further evidence that disasters could have significant long-term effects on the employment structure of affected regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Bam earthquake (2003 December 26, M = 6.6) was one of the largest earthquakes that occurred in southeast of Iran during last century. It took place along an N-S trending right-lateral strike-slip fault, almost near the southern end of Nyband-Gowk fault. In this study, we mapped the frequency-magnitude distribution of aftershock events spatially across the Bam aftershock zone. The b-value varies between 0.6 and 1.1 across the Bam rupture zone. The overall depth distribution of b-value in Bam aftershock zone reveals two distinct increases in b-value: (1) at depths of 8-10 km and (2) shallower than 4 km beneath the Bam city. There is no correlation between high b- value anomalies found in this study and the region of largest slip, whereas the spatial correlation between high b-value anomalies and the zone of low V and high σ (in earlier tomography study) is obvious. This correlation reveals that material properties and increasing heterogeneity are more important in controlling b-value distribution in Bam earthquake rupture zone. The high b-value anomaly near the surface of northern part of rupture zone may be related to unconsolidated and water-rich quaternary alluvial sediments and probable low-strength rocks beneath them. The high b-value anomaly at depth range 8-10 km can be correlated with fractured and fluid-filled mass, which may result from the movement of magma during Eocene volcanism in the Bam area. In this study, the induced changes in pore fluid pressure due to main shock are suggested as a mechanism for aftershock generation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the midst of the ever-increasing natural and human-induced disasters, where many of the preparedness and mitigation measures show inefficiencies, there is narrow margin for decision-makers to make mistakes by misallocating budgets, designing infeasible reconstruction plans, and in other terms, making decisions not in line with the public preferences. In particular, public participation in post-disaster measures seems undoubtedly necessary to reduce the possible economic, social, political, and cultural conflicts around the stressful community after a major disaster. This paper aims at evaluating the role of public participation in increasing the reconstruction phase efficiency through a case study of the reconstruction process in Bam, a southeastern Iranian city, after the 2003 earthquake. It is attempted to identify the major motivators of the public participation through a combination of quantitative and qualitative studies. Statistical data are generated through a set of questionnaires being filled by a number of 200 randomly selected survivors. The numerical results were then discussed through the Focus Group technique sessions to determine the main contributors to the public participation. It is later found that the answers are found among the performance of the reconstruction authorities, financial policies, emotional resiliency of the survivors, public information mechanisms, public satisfaction, the pace of reconstruction, and temporary housing policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thermal anomaly is known as a significant precursor of strong earthquakes, therefore Land Surface Temperature (LST) time series have been analyzed in this study to locate relevant anomalous variations prior to the Bam (26 December 2003), Zarand (22 February 2005) and Borujerd (31 March 2006) earthquakes. The duration of the three datasets which are comprised of MOD1S LST images is 44, 28 and 46 days for the Barn, Zarand and Borujerd earthquakes, respectively. In order to exclude variations of LST from temperature seasonal effects, Air Temperature (AT) data derived from the meteorological stations close to the earthquakes epicenters have been taken into account. The detection of thermal anomalies has been assessed using interquartile, wavelet transform and Kalman filter methods, each presenting its own independent property in anomaly detection. The interquartile method has been used to construct the higher and lower bounds in LST data to detect disturbed states outside the bounds which might be associated with impending earthquakes. The wavelet transform method has been used to locate local maxima within each time series of LST data for identifying earthquake anomalies by a predefined threshold. Also, the prediction property of the Kalman filter has been used in the detection process of prominent LST anomalies. The results concerning the methodology indicate that the interquartile method is capable of detecting the highest intensity anomaly values, the wavelet transform is sensitive to sudden changes, and the Kalman filter method significantly detects the highest unpredictable variations of LST. The three methods detected anomalous occurrences during 1 to 20 days prior to the earthquakes showing close agreement in results found between the different applied methods on LST data in the detection of pre-seismic anomalies. The proposed method for anomaly detection was also applied on regions irrelevant to earthquakes for which no anomaly was [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Older people are among the most vulnerable in major disasters. In their aftermath, it is crucial to institute efforts that will maintain a high level of elders' quality of life (QoL). This paper presents QoL assessments of elderly survivors five years after the Bam earthquake in Iran, and evaluates the determinants. A cross-sectional analysis of 210 randomly-selected survivors was carried out in 2008 using the WHOQOL-BREF questionnaire. A comparison of the results with data on the general population showed that experiencing the earthquake may adversely affect psychological dimensions of QoL even five years after, but paradoxically the earthquake resulted in better social relationships in affected communities than in the general population. Lower QoL associated with female gender, higher age, living alone, severe earthquake-related injury, poor quality of living conditions, increased dependency in the activities of daily living, living in an urban area, and being temporarily housed. Recovery experts and donors should carry out long-term monitoring of health status and QoL in disaster-affected communities, with a focus on psychological wellbeing. Intervention programmes that emphasise post-disaster quality of care and satisfactory housing may lead to better QoL of the victims and may shorten the recovery phase. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Introduction. Fasciotomy may increase the morbidity and mortality in patients with crush-induced acute kidney injury (AKI), by creating an open wound, increasing the risk of bleeding, coagulopathy, and potentially fatal sepsis. This study evaluates the outcomes of fasciotomy in these patients after Bam earthquake in Iran. Materials and Methods. We reviewed medical records of victims of Bam earthquake complicated with crush-induced AKI. Demographic, biochemical, and clinical data of patients who underwent fasciotomy were evaluated and compared with other patients with AKI. Results. Fasciotomy was performed for 70 of 200 patients with crush-induced AKI (35.0%). There were no significant differences regarding sex, age, time under the rubble, and muscle enzymes level between these patients and those without fasciotomy. They did not experience higher rates of disseminated intravascular coagulopathy, sepsis, adult respiratory distress syndrome, amputation, and dialysis session. Neither did they have a longer hospitalization period or higher death rate. Conclusions. This study showed that fasciotomy did not have any deteriorating effect on morbidity and mortality of patients with crush-induced AKI after Bam earthquake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The aim of this study is to explore mortality data collection after a destructive earthquake in Bam, Iran. Design/methodology/approach - This is a case study of mortality data collection using a qualitative approach. The study data were collected through interviews with people involved with data collection and processing in Iran, and an evaluation of routinely collected data. Findings - The results indicated that there were many limitations affecting data collection after the earthquake. These limitations are rooted in basic problems within the existing data collection system and a lack of co-ordination between the groups collecting data, including national and international aid groups that provided help after the earthquake. Research limitations/implications - The research is based on a very large and destructive earthquake; the results may be different for other natural disasters such as floods. Practical implications - The main target group of this study is the decision makers involved with the disaster relief issues at national and international levels. This issue of data collection is imperative for future disaster aid. Originality/value - The study highlights the problems affecting routine collection of mortality data after a disaster, arising from the scant attention paid to proper documentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quick restoration of critical infrastructure systems, such as water, electrical power, natural gas, and transportation systems, are essential for rapid and effective post disaster recovery and reconstruction process. A number of previous studies have assessed vulnerability of infrastructure systems to various hazards such as earthquakes, but seldom have the impacts of post disaster policies been considered. In its assessment of the water system in post disaster situation after Bam earthquake, this paper examines the impacts of various reconstruction as well as water management policies on the system failure in operation in terms of the ability of Bam urban water system to meet increased demand trends. Adopting a system dynamics modeling approach and the concept of viability loops, the paper will show that in order to minimize further crisis in the water system during the reconstruction period stricter water management policies need to be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The Coulomb failure function (CFF) quantitatively describes static stress changes in secondary faults near the source fault of an earthquake. CFF can be employed to monitor how static stress transfers and then shed some light on the probability of successive events occurring around a source fault. In this paper we focus on the CFF and particularly on optimally oriented planes. We present a unified model to determine an optimally oriented plane and its corresponding Coulomb stress, then apply the model to the 2003 Mw 6.6 Bam (Iran) earthquake and the 2008 Mw 7.9 Wenchuan (China) earthquake, thereby checking its effectiveness. Our results show that spatial correlation between positive Coulomb stress changes and aftershocks are, for the 2003 Bam earthquake, 47.06% when elastic Coulomb stress changes are resolved on uniform planes and 87.53% when these are resolved on optimally oriented planes at depth; for the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake the correlations are 45.68% and 58.20%, respectively. It is recommended that account be taken of optimally oriented planes when drawing a Coulomb stress map for analyzing earthquake triggering effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this article is to synthesize the 2003 Bam earthquake. A hybrid method is proposed for synthesizing the near-fault broadband timehistories; a theoretical green's function method and a stochastic finite-fault approach for generating time histories at low and high frequencies, respectively. A genetic algorithm is developed to optimize the differences between synthesized and recorded ground motions. The proposed technique can be used for dynamic nonlinear analysis of structures and site specific hazard analysis of the regions with lack of sufficient data and also for retrofitting the damaged structures during Bam earthquake, particularly the well-known adobe buildings of Arg-e-Bam. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Car accidents and gun-shot injuries are the most common causes of spinal cord injury. Five percent of those patients who have a complete spinal cord injury will experience improvement, to some extent. The lack of specific data in the literature regarding the outcome of earthquake related spinal cord injury justified us to design this study where we evaluated the neurological outcome and related factors of SCI in the Bam earthquake. We retrospectively evaluated the neurological outcome of patients with spinal cord injury who survived the Bam earthquake. In this study all patients with spinal cord injury that resulted from the Bam earthquake who registered in the Welfare Organization of Kerman were studied. The neurological conditions of patients eighteen months after the earthquake were compared with their neurological conditions at the time of the earthquake. A total of 17 (23.9%) patients with grade A impairment based on ASIA impairment Scale (AIS) at the time of the earthquake had significant neurological recovery. In addition, younger patients had better neurological outcomes. Those who had fracture dislocations had a worse outcome. Spinal cord injuries that are due to earthquakes have a better neurological outcome in comparison with other causes of this injury. The patients' ages and types of spinal fractures were significantly related to the neurological outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The main objective of this article is to simulate the three components of near-source ground shaking recorded at Bam station, close to the causative fault, during the destructive the 2003 Bam earthquake, where were strongly influenced by rupture directivity effect. A hybrid technique composed of the theoretical Green''s function, finite element and finite difference method proposed by Spudich et al. (1987, 2003) (COMPSYN) and a ω 2-based finite-fault approach proposed by Beresnev and Atkinson (1998a) (FINSIM) are used for generating seismograms at low and high frequencies respectively. A Genetic algorithm technique is developed for minimizing the differences between the recorded and simulated data incorporating parameters within a predefined upper/lower bound''s values previously estimated for main shock by other investigators. Two different faulting models, consist of a straight line segment and a straight line segment followed by a slightly north-eastward branch, are used. The simulated three component seismograms at Bam station, in terms of elastic response spectra, are validated by comparing the simulated time series with those of the observed data. Moreover, the pulses involved in the recorded time series due to the rupture directivity are estimated and compared with those of the observed data. A sensitivity analysis is performed for recognizing the influence of model parameter changes, such as focal mechanism (strike, dip and rake), rise-time, rupture velocity and hypocenter location on the simulated seismograms. Relatively good match of the simulated and observed time series, particularly the two faulting models, confirm the potentiality of the proposed technique and the suitability of seismological model parameters used. This technique can be used for specific site hazard analysis of the Bam region and linear/nonlinear dynamic analysis of structures where were damaged during the Bam earthquake particularly for retrofitting the well known international adobe buildings of Arg-e-Bam. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Elders have long been recognised as among the most vulnerable people in disaster events. This paper reports a qualitative study of the self-perceived needs of older people in the aftermath of the Bam earthquake in Iran in 2003. A total of 56 people aged from 65 to 88 years were recruited to the study using purposive sampling, including 29 men and 27 women. Six focus group discussions and ten semi-structured individual interviews were conducted. Each focus group involved six to ten people from the cities of Bam and Baravat and their rural suburbs. Content analysis was used to analyse the transcribed data. The analysis identified four major themes among the informants' concerns: inappropriate service delivery, affronts to dignity, feeling insecure and emotional distress. A disaster-prone country like Iran needs to be appropriately prepared with culturally sensitive plans to meet the needs of those who suffer from their effects, not least older people. Emergency relief managers should note that for many older people in a disaster zone, customary forms of relief are neither required nor appropriate, and that their distinctive immediate and long-term needs should be assessed and met. Relief agencies need to be trained to be age-sensitive and should mainstream older people's rights in the planning and implementation of both the response and recovery phases of assistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the natural disasters such as earthquake, based on severity of trauma, time under the rubble and quality/quantity of hydratation we will confront with a spectrum of traumatic rhabdomyolysis. In present study we evaluate victims of Bam earthquake to show different stage of muscle trauma, from minor trauma with almost normal level of muscle enzyme to those with moderate trauma leading to crush injury and finally to advanced crush syndrome. Questionnaire consisted of clinical, biochemical and demographic items was designed and completed by our research team retrospectively. We divided the patients to crush and non-crush and also crush injury and crush syndrome, and then compared aforementioned items between them. Clinical and laboratory data of 2962 hospitalized victims, with an average age of 28.4(SD14.2) years (range 1-90) were collected (40% female). 611 patients were affected with crush injury (20%). These were entrapped 2.2 hours longer than the others (P<0.001). Mean IV intake in first 5 days was 3.6(SD2.6) liters for these patients in compare with 2.5(SD1.4) liters for others (P<0.001). 200 cases showed complete feature of crush syndrome. Electrolyte imbalance and systemic complications were drastically increased in the worst patients with crush syndrome. In approach to crushed patients of natural disasters by attention to the wide spectrum of muscle damage and systemic problems, the stepwise management protocol based on severity of traumatic rhabdomyolysis is inevitable and warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the field of humanitarian assistance, sport and play have recently gained attention as innovative instruments to support a psychosocial rehabilitation process in post-disaster and post-conflict situations. The project 'Sport and play for traumatized children and youth', implemented by the Swiss Academy for Development after the earthquake in Bam, Iran, was a pilot project conducted in this field. This essay discusses the experiences gained and lessons learnt from the project, indicating the advantages and limitations of using sport and play as tools to support psychosocial rehabilitation in a post-disaster situation. Positive effects of the project were identified on both group and individual levels, but they cannot be attributed to the use of sport alone. The findings rather suggest that the coaches and their efforts to create a supportive environment have played a crucial role for the success of the project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atmospheric water-vapor effects represent a major limitation of interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) techniques, including InSAR time-series (TS) approaches (e.g., persistent or permanent scatterers and small-baseline subset). For the first time, this paper demonstrates the use of InSAR TS with precipitable water-vapor (InSAR TS + PWV) correction model for deformation mapping. We use MEdium Resolution Imagining Spectrometer (MERIS) near-infrafred (NIR) water-vapor data for InSAR atmospheric correction when they are available. For the dates when the NIR data are blocked by clouds, an atmospheric phase screen (APS) model has been developed to estimate atmospheric effects using partially water-vapor-corrected interferograms. Cross validation reveals that the estimated APS agreed with MERIS-derived line-of-sight path delays with a small standard deviation (0.3-0.5 cm) and a high correlation coefficient (0.84-0.98). This paper shows that a better TS of postseismic motion after the 2003 Bam (Iran) earthquake is achievable after reduction of water-vapor effects using the InSAR TS + PWV technique with coincident MERIS NIR water-vapor data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Critical analysis of shortcomings of emergency medical management of earthquake casualties will provide an invaluable insight to improve outcomes for future events. Using a critical analysis methodology to evaluate the quality of emergency medical management after Bam earthquake, we suggest a practical strategic approach to decrease morbidity and mortality after such events. Methods: We designed a questioner to register the basic demographic data and the key biologic parameters of all rescued victims arriving in hospitals. Based on that questioner a data bank was created and used for different analyses. In addition, published official reports and on the scene observations of our nephrologist colleagues were other sources of our data. Results: Bam earthquake was publicly announced more than six hours after its occurrence. The earliest time when local and international rescue teams arrived at the scene was 12 hours after the disaster. Fifty-four percent of hospital inpatients had been admitted on the second or third day after the earthquake. The mean time of being under the rubble was 4.8±4.9 hours. The mean time between extrication and initiation of intravenous fluid infusion was 18.9 hours (min: 10 minutes, max: 96 hours). Conclusion: Problems encountered in the aftermath of the Bam earthquake were related to the lack of prepared action plan and data management system. Here, we present a specifically designed earthquake chart. By following the chart, rescue paramedic personnel and emergency medical teams will be able to recognize high-risk victims, in order to provide timely medical management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the humanitarian work of the International Red Cross after the earthquake in Bam, Iran, it should be noted that international and national cooperation is possible according to recognised standards and concepts, and therefore morbidity records can be included uniformly in the context of day-to-day work even in post-disaster situations. The data ascertained show changes in the disease spectrum. Basic health provision according to the primary health care concept has priority in the post-disaster response (> 6 days) to the earthquake compared to more surgically oriented medical acute aid from abroad. In the international consensus conference at the beginning of January 2004, uniform morbidity recording was fixed to simple standardised disaster case definitions. The recording of traumatic, infectious and non-infectious diseases was carried out during the routine work in the outpatient facilities of the emergency response units of 3–31 January 2004. Examination was according to the following indicators: proportional morbidities and sum of the proportional morbidities. The complete examination time period included 16,677 new cases. The health facility rate only gradually increased. Temporal fluctuations in the numbers treated may be caused by secondary care of the injured, by a possible lack of accessibility (transport problems) or an increased acceptance of facilities. A written specification of the case definitions was not carried out in Bam, and so a comparison is not possible for recorded morbidities at the same time, and consistency cannot be reached for some of the data. Nine diagnoses/categories cover 98.68% of the consultations in the complete time period. Non-traumatic health problems predominate for the whole of the month. The category “others” is too high with 57.94%. Therefore, it may be assumed that certain diagnoses were overestimated, underestimated or not recognised. Vulnerable groups (children, women, the old) were not completely included. Standards and guidelines for health care in humanitarian aid exist and are of help during planning, decision finding, execution and communication. Data acquisition instruments (registering books and patient files) should be developed and standardised by national and international humanitarian groups. The recording of morbidity is a simple instrument in the context of outpatient facilities and provides valuable information for further work during disasters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, two base-line correction methods for correcting the near-source strong motions were studied on the near-source recording of the 2003, Bam earthquake. To obtain permanent ground displacements at Bam station, two methods were applied with some modifications and without using any kind of filtering. Even though it is difficult to calculate true permanent displacements from data attained by present accelerograms, the results of this study show that the rational limit of permanent ground displacements can be successfully achieved by rational choosing of effective parameters. In addition, it is observed that some pre-processing steps suggested in literature have no considerable influences on the final results. For more rationally choosing the parameters influencing calculation of permanent displacement, the velocity trace must be paid more attention, and consideration of Specific Energy Density may be useful for better estimating the effective parameters. Finally, using suggested methods, a good agreement between results of base-line correction process and real reported permanent displacements of Bam earthquake is observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background, aim, and scope The rapid growth of the world's population over the past few decades has led to a concentration of people, buildings, and infrastructure in urban areas. The tendency of urban areas to develop in sedimentary valleys has increased their vulnerability to earthquakes due to the presence of soft soil and sediment. Several earthquakes have clearly demonstrated that local soil and sediment conditions can have a significant influence on earthquake-induced ground motion and damage pattern, respectively. Many studies confirm the relationship between site effect and ground motion (Borcherdt in Bull Seismol Soc Am 60:29-61, 1970; Bouckovalas et al. in Geotech Geolog Eng (Historical Archive) 14(2):111-128, 1996; Fäh et al. in Seismology 1:87-10, 1997; Atakan et al. in Nat Hazards 15 (2-3): 139-164, 1997; Christaras et al. in Geodynamics 26(2- 4):393-411, 1998; Raptakis et al. in Bull Earthquake Eng 2 (3):285-301, 2004a; Raptakis et al. in Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 25:871-887, 2005; Marka et al. in Pure Appl Geophys 158:2349-2367, 2001; Marka et al. in Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 25(4):303-315, 2005; Importa etal. in Seismology 9(2):191-210, 2005; Tyagunov et al. in Nat Hazards 38:199-214, 2006; Lombardo et al. in Nat Hazards 38:339-354, 2006; Rayhani et al. in Geotech Geol Eng 21(1):91-100, 2008). In order to classify the suitability of the soil and subsurface sediment units for urban planning and compare their mechanical behavior with the non-uniform damage observed in the 2003 earthquake, we performed some geotechnical and geophysical analyses of soil and sediment samples collected from different locations in Barn City. Methodology Geophysical and geotechnical properties, such as grain size distribution, sorting, plasticity, Poison's ratio, shear strength, compression index, permeability, and P and S wave velocities in soil and subsurface sediments, were measured. Maps (in GIS environment) and cross-sections were prepared for the study area. Results According to our observations, a great number of buildings were damaged in areas of the city where silty and clayey soils dominate, presenting very low permeability, low wave velocity together with high plasticity, and compressibility. In the study area, we recognized eight sediment types. Shear wave propagation velocities allowed for the identification of four seismic layers referred to as the surface layer, second layer, and third layer and seismic bedrock. We found that the damages observed in the Bam area were related to the physical and mechanical properties of the soil and subsurface sediment units.… [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents an interdisciplinary analytical study on the risk preparedness and cultural landscape of the 2003 Bam Catastrophe. The study examines the extent to which the opportunities were capitalized upon and proposes recommendations and strategies for future risk preparedness planning in Bam. The study reveals that Bam offers opportunity for further growth and development of the city.

Background. At 5:28 a.m. (local time) on December 26, 2003, an earthquake measuring 6.51 on the Richter scale struck the city of Bam in the Kerman Province in southeastern Iran. Among the most important morbid events in survivors were acute renal problems. Clinical findings, laboratory data, and management of the renal victims, all of whom were transferred to Shiraz Hospitals, have been the subject of this analysis. Method. Medical records of twenty patients with acute renal failure admitted to three university hospitals and one community hospital were reviewed. Results. Overall, 801 patients were transferred to Shiraz hospitals, of whom 20 (mean age 36.2 ± 14.8 years, 15 males) developed acute renal failure with mean duration of 14.5 ± 9.6 days. Total mortality was 21 (2.6%) and acute renal failure mortality was 3 (15%). Seven patients received standard fluid therapy and 13 patients received variable volume treatment. In total, 79 dialysis sessions were performed in 15 patients (mean 5.2, 3.3 ± 1 sessions per patients). There was a positive correlation between time spent under rubble and peak serum CK (creatine phosphokinase) level (p = 0.035), acute renal failure duration (p = 0.047), and admission potassium levels (p = 0.033). Serum CK level was positively correlated with acute renal failure duration (p = 0.008). Patients who had received standard treatment had significantly shorter duration of acute renal failure (7.1 versus 9.4 days, p = 0.008) and less need for dialysis (1 versus 6, p = 0.007) than patients who were treated variably. Conclusion. In victims of earthquake, time spent under rubble and peak serum CK level can serve to estimate morbidity, and early standard treatment may decrease renal morbidity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A steel frame building with an X-bracing system, infill panels in both directions and “Khorjini” connections damaged in the Bam earthquake was studied using nonlinear dynamic analysis. To model the nonlinear force–deformation characteristics of columns, infill panels and braces, the specifications given in FEMA-356 were used, whereas for the Khorjini connections experimental results demonstrated these specifications. The comparison criterion for damage was life safety performance. The results show good correspondence of the building’s overall behavior in a story drift event. The extent of damage to columns and infill panels is in excellent correlation with the real damaged structure. It was also shown that most of the energy was absorbed by the infill panels, and for this complex system the infill panels played a crucial role in preventing the structure from collapse. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract  The influence of local geologic and soil conditions on the intensity of ground shaking is addressed in this study. The amplification of the ground motion due to local site effects resulted in severe damage to dwellings in the Bam area during the 2003 Bam Earthquake. A unique set of strong motion acceleration recordings was obtained at the Bam accelerograph station. Although the highest peak ground acceleration recorded was the vertical component (nearly 1 g), the longitudinal component (fault-parallel motion) clearly had the largest maximum velocity as well as maximum ground displacement. Subsurface geotechnical and geophysical (down-hole) data in two different sites have been obtained and used to estimate the local site condition on earthquake ground motion in the area. The ground response analyses have been conducted considering the nonlinear behavior of the soil deposits using both equivalent linear and nonlinear approaches. The fully nonlinear method embodied in FLAC was used to evaluate the nonlinear soil properties on earthquake wave propagation through the soil layer, and compare with the response from the equivalent linear approach. It is shown that thick alluvium deposits amplified the ground motion and resulted in significant damage in residential buildings in the earthquake stricken region. The comparison of results indicated similar response spectra of the motions for both equivalent and nonlinear analyses, showing peaks in the period range of 0.3–1.5 s. However, the amplification levels of nonlinear analysis were less than the equivalent linear method especially in long periods. The observed response spectra are shown to be above the NEHRP building code design requirements, especially at high frequencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a study conducted amongst patients who were having spinal cord injury (SCI), caused by the earthquake in Bam, Iran on December 26, 2003. It reports that the study was aimed at helping the rehabilitation of disabled persons in future disasters. It mentions that 61 patients were surveyed from different villages during the study and mentions the figures related to the survey results. It suggests that disasters should be taken sincerely by all countries and special attention should be given to persons affected and disabled by the disaster.

Factitious disorder, whilst uncommon, is not rare in patients referring to clinics and psychiatric hospital. Concerning high rate of grief reactions in this province after the Bam earthquake in the year 2004, we believe that this condition is Under diagnosed, mainly because of diagnostic difficulties. In current article an unusual case who came with psychotic symptoms accompanied by symptoms of complicated grief is reported. The final diagnosis is supposed to be factitious bereavement. Reported case is a 27 years old man with approved diagnosis of borderline personality disorder and opium dependence. At the last session of hospitalizing in 2010, his symptoms include : irritability, aggression and emphasis on visiting his relatives and some strange people who died in the Bam earthquake about six years ago, in which the patient took part in finding their corpses in collaboration with safety guards. From onset of disturbance, patient claimed that those deceased people are continuously present around him, talk to him and blame him because of his insufficient effort to save them. He also believes that the experiences are real and those people are alive at present. Relationship between factitious disorder with bereavement symptoms is not well-described in literatures, so this patient and influences of personality structure and opium dependence on forming patient''s symptoms are discussed in this article. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]