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Wood density is an intricate trait that encapsulates water transport, growth, and productivity. It is probably the most used parameter to deduce wood quality. In this study, the wood density of 81 European provenances of Norway spruce tested in three provenance trials from the Romanian Carpathians was analysed and compared at 49 years after planting. We also analysed the correlations between wood density and the provenances' geographic coordinates, as well as other traits, such as diameter at breast height, total height, and survival rate. For the genetic variance analysis of the wood density in each provenance trial and across sites, linear mixed models were used. Significant differences between the Norway spruce provenances regarding wood density were found only in the Dorna Candrenilor trial, where the mean wood density per provenance had values ranging from 0.311 ± 0.030 g/cm³ to 0.356 ± 0.019 g/cm³. No significant correlations between wood density and the provenances' geographic coordinates were found. Negative correlations were found between wood density and the other traits analysed. Provenances with good performances in provenance trials could be used in assisted migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The negative impact of climate change on biodiversity will continue to escalate rapidly. While some species will naturally migrate to more suitable areas or adapt to the new climatic environmental conditions in different fashions, for others doing so may prove to be problematic or impossible. Against this backdrop, scientists and environmentalists have proposed implementing plans for Assisted Migration (AM)—meaning the translocation of plants and animals to areas outside their natural habitats to conserve their species under the new emerging climatic conditions. This article seeks to identify legal approaches towards AM considering not only possible benefits from using this tool but also a necessity to minimize related risks. With regard to its stated purpose, this article also compares legal and policy documents relevant to AM issues from the United States, Australia, and the European Union. In conclusion, we have found, and this article shows, that while existing legal and policy documents leave room for manoeuvreing in regard to climate-related translocations and even sometimes explicitly mention AM as a possible tool for conservation, there exists a need for the further development of concrete legal mechanisms and their balancing with the predominant ideas and goals brought about by the necessity to protect native biota. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses outlook for the creation of an assisted colonization protocol by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Topics explored include the possible contribution of assisted colonization to species conservation, the concerns of some scientists over the possibility that some translocated species may demonstrate invasiveness, and an overview of the translocation guidelines of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Assisted migration can aid in the conservation of narrowly endemic species affected by habitat loss, fragmentation and climate change. Here, we employ a multidisciplinary approach by examining the population genetic structure of a threatened, dioecious rainforest tree of the subtropical notophyll vine forests of eastern Australia, Fontainea rostrata, and its potential requirements for population enhancement and translocation to withstand the effects of anthropogenic fragmentation and climate change. We used microsatellite markers to gain an understanding of the way genetic diversity is partitioned within and among the nine extant populations of F. rostrata identified in this study. We combined the results with species distribution modelling to identify populations vulnerable to possible future range shifts based on climate change projections. We found regional differences between the species’ main distribution in the south and a disjunct northern population cluster (FRT = 0.074, FSR = 0.088, FST = 0.155), in mean allelic richness (AR = 2.77 vs 2.33, p < 0.05), expected heterozygosity (HE = 0.376 vs 0.328), and inbreeding (F = 0.116 vs 0.219). Species distribution models predicted that while southern populations of F. rostrata are likely to persist for the next 50 years under the RCP6.0 climate change scenario, with potential for a small-scale expansion to the south-east, the more highly inbred and less genetically diverse northern populations will come under increasing pressure to expand southwards as habitat suitability declines. Given the species’ genetic structure and with the aim to enhance genetic diversity and maximise the likelihood of reproductive success, we recommend that plant reintroductions to supplement existing populations should be prioritised over translocation of the species to new sites. However, future conservation efforts should be directed at translocation to establish new sites to increase population connectivity, focussing particularly on habitat areas identified as persisting under conditions of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Tree seedlings displayed high survival above their elevation limits of distribution. • Early establishment was poorer with increased temperature in five species. • Canopy cover had a positive effect on seedling survival. • Humidity had no effect on seedling performance. • Assisted migration has potential to benefit cloud forest tree species. Abstract Cloud forest tree species are reported to be shifting and retracting their distributional ranges in response to increasing temperatures. However, there is limited information regarding the impact of increasing temperatures on the recruitment of cloud forest trees, a critical phase in population dynamics. Evaluating the establishment of introduced seedlings along an elevation gradient offers an opportunity to assess the influence of environmental change on the early establishment and potential response of cloud forest tree species to assisted migration into higher elevations as a mitigation strategy. We evaluated the early seedling establishment of 3240 seedlings of 12 cloud forest tree species introduced into nine degraded forests subjected to traditional selective logging along an elevation gradient (1250–2517 m a.s.l.) in southern Mexico. We examined (1) how the probability of successful seedling establishment varies along the elevation gradient and (2) how temperature, canopy cover, herbaceous cover and humidity affect seedling survival and growth. Seedling survival, relative growth rates and environmental factors were recorded over a period of two years. Most species displayed high survival (∼90%), and survivorship was most strongly related to canopy cover and temperature. Survival probability increased with canopy cover in five species. Seedling survival and growth decreased with increasing temperature in five species, while the opposite trend was found in two species. Growth rates increased with herbaceous cover in seven species. Humidity had no effect on seedling performance. Our experiment shows that most of the study species have a high probability of seedling survival under canopy cover, even outside the limits of their reported elevational ranges. The results indicate that five of the studied cloud forest species may already benefit from assisted migration to cooler climatic conditions at higher elevations. This study supports the design of management guidelines for assisting the migration of cloud forest tree species with narrow distributions, as a climate change mitigation strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In September 2011, a delicate cargo of 24 Nihoa Millerbirds was carefully loaded by conservationists onto a ship for a three-day voyage to Laysan Island in the remote Northwest Hawaiian Islands. The goal of this effort was to establish a second population of this endangered species, an 'insurance population' in the face of the mounting pressures of climate change and potential new biotic arrivals. But the millerbird, or ululu in Hawaiian, is just one of the many avian species to become the subject of this kind of 'assisted colonisation'. In Hawai'i, and around the world, recent years have seen a broad range of efforts to safeguard species by finding them homes in new places. Thinking through the ululu project, this article explores the challenges and possibilities of assisted colonisation in this colonised land. What does it mean to move birds in the context of the long, and ongoing, history of dispossession of the Kānaka Maoli, the Native Hawaiian people? How are distinct but entangled process of colonisation, of unworlding, at work in the lives of both people and birds? Ultimately, this article explores how these diverse colonisations might be understood and told responsibly in an era of escalating loss and extinction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The world's forests play an important role in regulating climate change through their capacity to sequester carbon. At the same time, they are also increasingly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. In the western Canadian province of British Columbia, changes in temperature, precipitation, and disturbance regimes are already impacting forests. In response to these observed and anticipated changes, adapted reforestation practices are being developed and proposed as a means to help forest ecosystems adjust to changing climatic conditions. One such practice under consideration is assisted migration—planting species within or outside of the native historical range into areas that are anticipated to be climatically suitable in the future. We used a survey of British Columbia's population at large (n = 1923) to quantify levels of support for a range of potential reforestation options (including assisted migration) to adapt to climate change, and to explore what factors can help predict this support. Our findings reveal that the likely location of potential public controversy resides not with the potential implementation of assisted migration strategies per se, but rather with assisted migration strategies that involve movement of tree species beyond their native range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article comments on the importance of phyllosphere on plant functional ecology. Topics include phyllosphere traits may represent the missing link among axes of plant strategies, phyllosphere core microbiome may be defined according to their ‘shared predicted functions' such as protein-coding gene, and understanding how plants control phyllosphere colonization (phyllosphere response traits) is essential for a better comprehension of how phyllosphere organisms affect plant traits.

Abstract: Human land use is fragmenting habitats worldwide and inhibiting dispersal among previously connected populations of organisms, often leading to inbreeding depression and reduced evolutionary potential in the face of rapid environmental change. To combat this augmentation of isolated populations with immigrants is sometimes used to facilitate demographic and genetic rescue. Augmentation with immigrants that are genetically and adaptively similar to the target population effectively increases population fitness, but if immigrants are very genetically or adaptively divergent, augmentation can lead to outbreeding depression. Despite well‐cited guidelines for the best practice selection of immigrant sources, often only highly divergent populations remain, and experimental tests of these riskier augmentation scenarios are essentially nonexistent. We conducted a mesocosm experiment with Trinidadian guppies (Poecilia reticulata) to test the multigenerational demographic and genetic effects of augmenting 2 target populations with 3 types of divergent immigrants. We found no evidence of demographic rescue, but we did observe genetic rescue in one population. Divergent immigrant treatments tended to maintain greater genetic diversity, abundance, and hybrid fitness than controls that received immigrants from the source used to seed the mesocosms. In the second population, divergent immigrants had a slightly negative effect in one treatment, and the benefits of augmentation were less apparent overall, likely because this population started with higher genetic diversity and a lower reproductive rate that limited genetic admixture. Our results add to a growing consensus that gene flow can increase population fitness even when immigrants are more highly divergent and may help reduce uncertainty about the use of augmentation in conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Selecting the geographic origin—the provenance—of seed is a key decision in restoration. The last decade has seen a vigorous debate on whether to use local or nonlocal seed. The use of local seed has been the preferred approach because it is expected to maintain local adaptation and avoid deleterious population effects (e.g., maladaptation and outbreeding depression). However, the impacts of habitat fragmentation and climate change on plant populations have driven the debate on whether the local-is-best standard needs changing. This debate has largely been theoretical in nature, which hampers provenance decision-making. Here, we detail cross-sector priority actions to improve provenance decision-making, including embedding provenance trials into restoration projects; developing dynamic, evidence-based provenance policies; and establishing stronger research–practitioner collaborations to facilitate the adoption of research outcomes. We discuss how to tackle these priority actions in order to help satisfy the restoration sector's requirement for appropriately provenanced seed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest managers are beginning to experiment with assisted migration (AM), the intentional movement of organisms to areas outside their historic range, as a pre-emptive adaptation to climate change. To date, AM studies have focused on species conservation, while AM in forestry has received little attention. Using Manitoba, Canada, as our study area, we developed a two-stage framework to evaluate North American tree species as AM candidates. Little’s (1971) range maps were used to characterize climatic ranges for 87 species, and GCM projections under RCP8.5 estimated potential future tree distributions for 2011-2040, 2041-2070, and 2071-2100. Traits for the resulting 26 candidate species were evaluated in eight categories, each divided into several response factors, to investigate management potential, adaptation and interspecific interactions, vulnerability to pests, diseases and natural disturbance, and range of soil conditions tolerated. Multivariate analyses were used to classify species into groups characterized by different combinations of management potential, tolerance for climate extremes, and relative vulnerability to disturbances, insects, and disease. These groupings could be used by managers in a variety of applications—commercial forestry, urban forests, or restoration—as an initial selection filter for AM candidates. Separate uncertainty scores in each category should allow users to independently judge the quality of information contributing to a given category. Although our framework was regionally focused, it could be readily adapted to selecting AM candidates elsewhere. We recommend that the framework be further field tested among different practitioners, modifying, editing, and adding to the list of categories and factors, as needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimm.) may influence reproduction and dispersal of plant species through herbivory of flowering stems. We examined the effects of white-tailed deer herbivory on the seed production of Bog Jacob’s-ladder (Polemonium vanbruntiae Britt.), a facultative wetland plant considered rare throughout its range. We monitored life-stage transitions in 10 local populations in Canaan Valley, West Virginia, from 2005-2007, modeled the population growth rates, and estimated extinction rates for each population accounting for the loss of seeds due to white-tailed deer florivory. Seed loss due to consumption of flowering stems ranged between 0 and 96% within individual populations ( = 52 ± 4.5%). A significant difference in seed production occurred between browsed ( = 0.6 ± 0.18) and unbrowsed ( = 24 ± 1.43) plants. Predicted seed loss was significantly higher ( = 57 ± 19%), where no hunting was allowed, than where deer hunting occurred ( = 40 ± 18%). The observed levels of white-tailed deer florivory have the potential to significantly reduce population growth rates (p < 0.0001). Although white-tailed deer florivory may not increase local population extinction rates, loss of seed production may result in a loss of the potential for colonization of new patches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest managers are considering assisted migration as a strategy to develop climate-resilient forests. Assisted migration (AM) is the translocation of species or genotypes from their current ranges to areas predicted to have a supportive future climate. Although correlations of species ranges with climate are traditionally used to explore AM potential, successful AM strategies will have to consider many other variables. In this article, we review recent research that informs the complexity of AM decisions. Local microenvironment, herbivory, and intraspecific interactions frequently outweigh climate in determining species establishment and survival. Species adopt several strategies to cope with drought, heat, and cold, but translocated genetic material can display cryptic maladaptation when challenged by extreme, out-of-range weather events. Phenology, photoperiod, and climate are related in complex, often provenance-specific ways. We discuss the implications of our findings for forestry AM and make recommendations for incorporating these insights into future research and AM practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Assisted colonisation, one form of species translocation, has been proposed as a tool for helping species to track suitable conditions in a changing climate. There are considerable practical challenges associated with it, including predicting where to place translocated individuals. This problem may be particularly big for small and immobile species, where small‐scale microenvironmental conditions de‐couple them from environmental conditions as projected in large‐scale climate models. To investigate this problem, we developed a survey‐based model to predict the occurrence of our target species, the fruticose terricolous arctic‐alpine lichen, Flavocetraria nivalis, within the Cairngorm Mountains. We then undertook an experimental translocation of this species. A second model, using variables that were significant in the survey‐based model, was only fair at predicting the initial pattern of survival at the recipient site. However, model fit of the translocation survival model improved over time as the distribution of surviving individuals more accurately reflected the distribution of suitable environmental conditions. In addition, model predictive power increased with the addition of data on microclimatic conditions at recipient plots. Synthesis and applications. Our results demonstrate that, for species which respond strongly to local environmental conditions, are immobile and, to some extent, decoupled from larger scale climates, it may be difficult to build a priori accurate predictive models of habitat suitability. In these cases, a combination of modelling and expert judgement, along with the movement of substantial numbers of transplants, may be the appropriate options for maximising the success of assisted colonisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vulnerability assessments can provide useful information for the establishment of climate change adaptation strategies. We performed spatial vulnerability assessments for multiple plant species that incorporate potential range shifts to areas of future suitable climate. We conducted the assessments at a national level for plant species organized into vulnerable species groups. We then identified a climate meta-corridor for each vulnerable group that could potentially be a pathway for multiple species., We estimated climate suitability for 2297 South Korean terrestrial plant species under current climate conditions and climate projections for 2050 using the Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines multiresponse species distribution model. We classified the plants into five groups based on their current spatial distribution patterns: centrally located species, wide-range species, coastal mountain species, montane species, and lowland species. Three vulnerability assessment components - exposure, spatial disruption, and dispersal pressure - were used to calculate the spatial vulnerability of each species. Vulnerability values were averaged by group. We identified climate meta-corridors that would link current suitable areas to future climatically suitable areas, and tested the corridors for multi-species accessibility., The vulnerability assessment indicates that coastal mountain, montane, and lowland species groups, comprising 37% of all modelled species, are the most vulnerable to climate change. The climate meta-corridor for each group overlaps at least some portion of 83% or more of its species' current modelled ranges. The current and future climate-suitable areas for the lowland species group have very little spatial overlap, suggesting a high priority should be placed on the corridor identified for these species. We found that the destinations of the climate corridors converge, raising questions about large numbers of species moving to limited areas, and that transboundary corridor modelling is needed on the Korean Peninsula., Policy implications. Each of the three meta-corridors has unique policy implications: assisted migration for the highest elevation species for the montane; significant conservation and restoration work for the lowland; and perhaps no direct intervention but monitoring to evaluate effectiveness of the relatively intact habitats of the coastal mountain meta-corridor. Overall, implementation policies for climate connectivity will be context-dependent, requiring different approaches dependent on local and regional conditions and the species targeted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dark diversity is a promising concept for prioritising management efforts as it focuses on species that are present in the regional pool, but locally absent even though environmental requirements are met. Currently, we lack knowledge of what characterises species belonging to the dark diversity more often than others, although this is important knowledge for restoration and conservation actions., We applied the concept to a massive national (Danish) plant diversity data base, containing 236 923 records from 15 160 surveys involving 564 species. This enabled the first geographically comprehensive (43 000 km2) assessment of dark diversity, at a spatial resolution relevant for conservation and restoration planning (78 m2) across multiple terrestrial habitats, thereby maximising the practical applications of this concept. The probability for a given plant species to belong to the dark diversity was computed and logistically regressed against variables representing its ecological preferences (e.g. nutrient availability), strategies (competitor, stress tolerant, ruderal), mycorrhizal relationships, establishment capacities (seed mass) and dispersal abilities., Forty-six percent of the species had a high probability (>95%) of being part of dark diversity, whereas for 7% of the species this probability was less than 60%., Typical dark diversity plant species tended to depend on mycorrhiza, were mostly adapted to low light and low nutrient levels, had poor dispersal abilities and were ruderals and stress intolerant., Synthesis and applications. Characterising species that are more often absent from suitable sites than others (dark diversity species) has important implications for the planning and management of natural ecosystems. From our study, practitioners gain insight into the factors triggering the absence of individual plant species in a seemingly suitable habitat. We highlight the need to carefully consider mycorrhizal inoculations with a suitable assemblage of fungi to promote the establishment success of dark diversity plants. Additionally, time-lags in plant species dispersal and establishment as well as spatial connectivity in fragmented habitats are central to consider in nature management although assisted migration might also aid poor dispersers. Finally, nutrient-poor localities are probably important 'islets' allowing nitrophobic dark diversity plant species to thrive within agricultural landscapes that are generally nutrient-rich. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Tropical Andes make up Earth's most species-rich biodiversity hotspot for both animals and plants. Nevertheless, the ecological and evolutionary processes underlying this extraordinary richness remain uncertain. Here, we examine the processes that generate high richness in the Tropical Andes relative to other regions in South America and across different elevations within the Andes, using frogs as a model system. We combine distributional data, a newly generated time-calibrated phylogeny for 2,318 frog species, and phylogenetic comparative methods to test the relative importance of diversification rates and colonization times for explaining Andean diversity at different scales. At larger scales (among regions and families), we find that faster diversification rates in Andean clades most likely explain high Andean richness. In contrast, at smaller temporal and spatial scales (within family-level clades within the Andes), diversification rates rarely explain richness patterns. Instead, we show that colonization times are important for shaping elevational richness patterns within the Andes, with more species found in habitats colonized earlier. We suggest that these scale-dependent patterns might apply to many other richness gradients. Recognition of this scale dependence may help to reconcile conflicting results among studies of richness patterns across habitats, regions, and organisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Threatened species with reduced and fragmented habitats can be reintroduced into their historical ranges to establish new populations. Multiple sites might be an option for reintroductions; therefore, managers must determine when to open sites (e.g. establish infrastructure and improve conditions), release individuals into those sites, and eventually cease releases. Careful planning of this schedule, incorporating the cost of actions, is imperative at the outset of a program. To address this challenge, we consider a reintroduction plan under different cost scenarios for three potential reintroduction sites. In particular, we investigate the implications of having either no ongoing site-management cost, a financial ongoing site-management cost, or a demographic cost of continuous releases. We couple population and management models to find a schedule that maximizes total abundance over time of bridled nail-tail wallaby Onychogalea fraenata (released in fixed numbers each breeding season from a stable source population) using stochastic dynamic programming. We find that the type of ongoing cost influences the structure of the optimal schedule. If active release sites cost nothing to maintain, there is no incentive to cease releases. In that case, the optimal schedule is to open sites sequentially, then release individuals to the smallest active population for the entire length of the program. A financial cost for managing active sites alters this result; once all sites are open and have populations of a critical threshold size, sites should be closed sequentially. A higher mortality rate (demographic cost) at active compared to inactive sites completely changes the structure of the optimal strategy. Instead of opening all sites in the first few management stages, only one site should be active any time to reduce the demographic impact of releases. Our general results provide a guide for planning future reintroduction programs and illustrate the importance of categorizing and understanding ongoing costs for reintroduction planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species distribution models (SDMs), which statistically relate species occurrence to climatic variables, are widely used to identify areas suitable for species growth under future climates and to plan for assisted migration. When SDMs are projected across times or spaces, it is assumed that species climatic requirements remain constant. However, empirical evidence supporting this assumption is rare, and SDM predictions could be biased. Historical human-aided movements of tree species can shed light on the reliability of SDM predictions in planning for assisted migration. We used Douglas-fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), a North American conifer introduced into Europe during the mid-19th century, as a case-study to test niche conservatism. We combined transcontinental data sets of Douglas-fir occurrence and climatic predictors to compare the realized niches between native and introduced ranges. We calibrated a SDM in the native range and compared areas predicted to be climatically suitable with observed presences. The realized niches in the native and introduced ranges showed very limited overlap. The SDM calibrated in North America had very high predictive power in the native range, but failed to predict climatic suitability in Europe where Douglas-fir grows in climates that have no analogue in the native range. We review the ecological mechanisms and silvicultural practices that can trigger such shifts in realized niches. Retrospective analysis of tree species introduction revealed that the assumption of niche conservatism is erroneous. As a result, distributions predicted by SDM are importantly biased. There is a high risk that assisted migration programs may be misdirected and target inadequate species or introduction zones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assisted migration is recognized as a possible method for species conservation under climate change. Predicted decrease in range size and emergence of new suitable areas due to climate change are the main reasons for considering assisted migration. The magnitude of such changes can be used to guide decisions on the applicability of this conservation method. However, it has not been formalized how predictions acquired, e.g., with the help of species distribution models or expert assessments, should translate into recommendations or decisions. Climate change threat indices concentrating on predicted loss of habitat are not directly applicable in this context as they do not define whether a species has the potential to expand its range compared to the area that remains suitable. Here we present a conceptual framework for identifying and quantifying situations in which predictions indicate that a species could benefit from assisted migration. We translate predicted changes in suitable area into separate metrics for migration need and migration potential on the basis of the amount of lost, remnant, and new area. These metrics can be used as part of decision-making frameworks in determining the most suitable conservation method for a specific species. They also hold potential for coarser screening of multiple species to estimate the proportion of species that could benefit from assisted migration within a given time frame and climate change scenario. Furthermore, the approach can be used to highlight time frames during which assisted migration or, alternatively, other conservation actions are the most beneficial for a certain species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assisted migration (AM), an ecosystem engineering technology, is receiving increasing attention and significant support as a means to save biodiversity in a changing climate. Few substantive, or not obviously deficient, reasons have been offered for why pursuing this conservation goal via these means might be good. Some proponents of AM, including those who identify themselves as 'pragmatists,' even suggest there is little need for such argument. We survey the principal reasons offered for AM, as well as reasons offered for not offering reasons. As exemplified by the case for translocating whitebark pine, which may at first seem especially strong, we note the incongruence of framing the goal of AM in terms of 'saving biodiversity,' neglect of some crucial moral questions, marginalization of normative and scientific context when AM is cast as the lesser of two evils in a 'crisis,' doubtful validity and, in any case, marginal importance of arguments that AM projects ought to be undertaken, inconsistent use of scientific facts, and omission of science that counters sanguine assessments. All told-even in cases such as whitebark pine for which AM may seem most defensible-there is little reason to think that AM projects are good as means to 'save biodiversity,' or good as means to other goals that have accreted into arguments for these projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Incomplete post-zygotic isolation poses challenges for the maintenance of species integrity in recently radiated lineages. An example is Jamesbrittenia, a southern African-centred genus, the species of which cross readily to produce viable offspring. We develop a dated phylogenetic hypothesis for Jamesbrittenia and used this to assess the evidence for recent radiation and to evaluate the roles of geography, relatedness and floral divergence in determining the incidence of wild hybridization. Phylogenetic inference is based on nuclear ( GScp) and plastid ( rps16, psb-trnH) loci, but uses morphological evidence to resolve instances of supported incongruence. Our data reveal four ecologically and biogeographically differentiated lineages in Jamesbrittenia. One of these, a widespread and predominantly shrubby lineage, reflects accelerated diversification, potentially triggered by environmental change, starting in the late Miocene epoch. In the widespread clade, strong range exclusivity indicates an important role for geography in maintaining species identity. Among species with overlapping ranges, however, differentiation in floral form is a powerful predictor of wild hybridization. The apparent importance of geography in maintaining species integrity in recently diverged lineages, like the widespread clade of Jamesbrittenia, needs to be considered when species are translocated, whether such translocation is horticulturally motivated or forms part of an 'assisted migration' exercise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change obliges societies to develop adaptive strategies in order to maintain sustainable management of resources and landscapes. However, the development and implementation of these strategies require dialogue between researchers and policy-makers about what they understand for adaptation. This dialogue can be hindered by language differences, the hidden agendas, and conflicting concerns of those involved. In this research study, we explored the mechanisms that underlie the implementation process of assisted migration (AM), an adaptation strategy that aims to limit the impact of climate change. We conducted a comparative analysis of 80 semistructured interviews with actors in the forestry sectors in Canada and France. In Canada, our results show a division between the provinces strategies, causing a debate about AM because researchers are wary of the geoengineering and economic arguments that frame AM in areas where the effects of climate change remain unclear. In contrast, we found that the observation of climate impacts is a strong trigger for the application of AM despite an awareness of its associated risks. In France, we explained the absence of AM implementation by a lack of information flow between research and foresters regarding the concept of AM, a cultural attachment of French foresters to their forest landscapes and that climate change effects are not clear yet. Clarity on what implies a true ecological engineering approach in ecological restoration can help maintaining adaptive actions like AM within the general scope of ecosystem management and minimize simplistic applications of adaptation strategies because of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation translocations, anthropogenic movements of species to prevent their extinction, have increased substantially over the last few decades. Although multiple species are frequently moved to the same location, current translocation guidelines consider species in isolation. This practice ignores important interspecific interactions and thereby risks translocation failure. We model three different two-species systems to illustrate the inherent complexity of multispecies translocations and to assess the influence of different interaction types (consumer-resource, mutualism, and competition) on translocation strategies. We focus on how these different interaction types influence the optimal founder population sizes for successful translocations and the order in which the species are moved (simultaneous or sequential). Further, we assess the effect of interaction strength in simultaneous translocations and the time delay between translocations when moving two species sequentially. Our results show that translocation decisions need to reflect the type of interaction. While all translocations of interacting species require a minimum founder population size, which is demarked by an extinction boundary, consumer-resource translocations also have a maximum founder population limit. Above the minimum founder size, increasing the number of translocated individuals leads to a substantial increase in the extinction boundary of competitors and consumers, but not of mutualists. Competitive and consumer-resource systems benefit from sequential translocations, but the order of translocations does not change the outcomes for mutualistic interaction partners noticeably. Interspecific interactions are important processes that shape population dynamics and should therefore be incorporated into the quantitative planning of multispecies translocations. Our findings apply whenever interacting species are moved, for example, in reintroductions, conservation introductions, biological control, or ecosystem restoration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Translocating plants for conservation purposes can be a useful tool to enhance existing populations, restore lost populations or create new ones, but has rarely been done for bryophytes, especially liverworts. Aims: Here, the leafy liverwortHerbertus hutchinsiae, a representative species of oceanic-montane liverwort-rich heath, was translocated to unoccupied habitat within its current range, to establish whether its restricted distribution is due to habitat or dispersal limitation. Methods: Feasibility of establishing new populations outside the current distribution range was assessed, to test the suitability of the species for assisted colonisation. Furthermore, transplants were grown at degraded sites where the species had declined to assess potential for restoration. Results: Although maximal growth rates occurred within-range, transplants grew at all sites, indicating that the species could be dispersal limited; a conclusion supported by distribution modelling. Conclusions: Assisted colonisation is thus an option for this species to overcome dispersal limitation and to track future climate space. Reinforcement of populations at degraded sites is only recommended if the pressure causing the degradation has been removed. These findings provide an evidence base for practical conservation management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assisted migration (AM) has been suggested as a management strategy for aiding species in reaching newly suitable locations as climate changes. Species distribution models (SDMs) can provide important insights for decisions on whether to assist a species in its migration; however, their application includes uncertainties. In this study, we use consensus SDMs to model the future suitable areas for 13 vascular plant species with poor dispersal capacity. Based on the outputs of SDMs under different climate change scenarios and future times, we quantify the predicted changes in suitable area by calculating metrics that describe the need and potential for migration. We find that, by the end of the 21st century, one of the species would benefit from AM under mild climate change, seven under moderate change, and for 12 out of 13 species studied AM appears to be a relevant conservation method under strong climate change. We also test the effect of different modeling attributes on the metrics and find little variation between SDMs constructed using different combinations of modeling methods and variable sets. However, the choice of climate variables had a larger influence on the level of the metrics than did the modeling method. We therefore suggest that the choice of climate variables should receive ample attention when measuring climate change threat using SDMs and that experiments aiming to uncover critical environmental factors for individual species should be extensively conducted. This study illustrates that dispersal assistance may be needed for many species under a wide range of possible future climates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Questions How do thermal migration distance and extreme cold events affect seedling emergence and survival in assisted migration schemes in the sub-Mediterranean context? What role does plant provenance play? Can biotic interactions such as nurse effect of the overstorey and shrub layer buffer the negative responses to plant translocation? Are any of these effects species-specific? Location Three pinewoods in the Catalan Pre-Pyrenees, northeast Iberian Peninsula. Methods We used a replicated field trial to test the early years establishment of two contrasted provenances of four Quercus species ( Q. coccifera, Q. ilex, Q. faginea and Q. pubescens) that were sown and planted along gradients of elevation and understorey microsite conditions in sub-Mediterranean pinewoods. Seedling responses to translocation were evaluated through seedling emergence, seedling survival and re-sprouting after dieback events according to seedling provenance, thermal migration distance, extreme cold events and microenvironment. Results The study reports high success of both the planting (with an overall 76.3% of initial 3-yr survival) and sowing (with an overall 50% of seedling emergence) experiments. The results show that: (1) the thermal migration distance and the occurrence of extreme cold events have strong effects on the responses of the translocated species (particularly the evergreen oaks); (2) the forest overstorey plays an important role in attenuating the negative effects of thermal migration distance on seedling survival; and (3) these responses are species-specific. The evergreen Quercus species showed more evidence of high ecotypic differentiation in terms of cold tolerance, enabling local provenances to respond better to translocation. In contrast, marcescent species, showed high phenotypic plasticity that led to a better overall establishment success. Conclusion The implementation of assisted migration is a feasible option to increase the diversity and resilience of the sub-Mediterranean pinewoods. Assisted migration programmes should manage risks by thoroughly considering thermal migration distances and the occurrence of extreme cold events when selecting species and seed sources, since Mediterranean tree species show different strategies regarding adaptation to cold. Programme managers should also consider the advantage of planting/sowing under relatively closed canopy to buffer some of the negative responses associated with translocation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Choosing drought-tolerant planting stock in reforestation programs may help adapt forests to climate change. To inform such reforestation strategies, we test lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta Doug. ex Loud. var latifolia Englm.) population response to drought and infer potential benefits of a northward transfer of seeds from drier, southern environments. The objective is addressed by combining dendroecological growth analysis with long-term genetic field trials. Over 500 trees originating from 23 populations across western North America were destructively sampled in three experimental sites in southern British Columbia, representing a climate warming scenario. Growth after 32 years from provenances transferred southward or northward over long distances was significantly lower than growth of local populations. All populations were affected by a severe natural drought event in 2002. The provenances from the most southern locations showed the highest drought tolerance but low productivity. Local provenances were productive and drought tolerant. Provenances from the boreal north showed lower productivity and less drought tolerance on southern test sites than all other sources, implying that maladaptation to drought may prevent boreal populations from taking full advantage of more favorable growing conditions under projected climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Translocation is a popular conservation tool, but the outcomes are variable. Many tactics can be used to improve the probability of success, but a comprehensive summary of these does not exist. This increases the risk that valuable tactics will be overlooked, and inhibits effective communication. 2. We assess the diversity of 'translocation tactics' used in mammal and bird translocations, by reviewing the IUCN/SSC Guidelines for Reintroduction and other Conservation Translocations, 195 peer-reviewed articles and 73 case studies from the IUCN/SSC Global Reintroduction Perspectives Series. 3. We recorded descriptions of every technique used to influence the post-release performance of translocated wildlife. We developed the Translocation Tactics Classification System (TTCS) which defines a collection of 30 tactics and organize them into an ecologically relevant framework. We also assess the occurrence of tactics within the Guidelines, the primary literature and the case studies to evaluate how tactics are communicated within these mediums. 4. Our results indicate that the Guidelines are a valuable resource, but do not exhaustively cover tactics, and that detailed methodological accounts are rarely made publicly accessible. This highlights the need to develop context-specific resources to support the Guidelines, and to develop and exploit mediums that facilitate recording of methodological detail, the tactical rationale behind the design and evaluations of effectiveness. Although some forms of grey literature address this issue, the general lack of information limits the ability to investigate the relationship between tactics and translocation success. 5. Synthesis and applications. The Translocation Tactics Classification System (TTCS) provides a checklist which ensures that the full diversity of tactics is considered when developing translocation processes. Standardizing the communication of tactics, and encouraging detailed accounts of applied methodologies to be recorded, along with the tactical reasoning behind the design, will provide operational models and the data required to conduct broad-scale meta-analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alpine mammals are predicted to be among the species most threatened by climate change, due to the projected loss and further fragmentation of alpine habitats. As temperature or precipitation regimes change, alpine mammals may also be faced with insurmountable barriers to dispersal. The slow rate or inability to adjust to rapidly shifting environmental conditions may cause isolated alpine species to become locally extirpated, resulting in reduced biodiversity. One proposed method for mitigating the impacts of alpine species loss is assisted migration. This method, which involves translocating a species to an area with more favourable climate and habitat characteristics, has become the subject of debate and controversy in the conservation community. The uncertainty associated with climate change projections, coupled with the thermal sensitivity of many alpine mammals, makes it difficult to a priori assess the efficacy of this technique as a conservation management tool. Here we present the American pika (Ochotona princeps) as a case study. American pikas inhabit rocky areas throughout the western US, and populations in some mountainous areas have become locally extirpated in recent years. We review known climatic and habitat requirements for this species, and also propose protocols designed to reliably identify favourable relocation areas. We present data related to the physiological constraints of this species and outline specific requirements which must be addressed for translocation of viable populations, including wildlife disease and genetic considerations. Finally, we discuss potential impacts on other alpine species and alpine communities, and overall implications for conserving alpine biodiversity in a changing climate. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Assisted migration of warm-adapted genotypes to currently cooler climates may reduce maladaptation from future climate change. Few assisted migration trials have considered limitations of the cooler climates and pathogens currently present at transplant sites. This is especially important to consider in riparian ecosystems that are priority targets for restoration in the western United States as they harbor diverse communities. In an effort to validate assisted migration as an effective strategy for mediating the negative impacts of climate change, we used a provenance trial with replicated genotypes from 19 populations of the foundation riparian tree species, Fremont cottonwood ( Populus fremontii), transplanted to a cold site to test for genetic variation in growth, mortality, and resistance to shoot blight fungi ( Venturia sp.). Populations from cool sites had up to 4 times faster growth, 3 times higher survival, and 8 times higher resistance to Venturia than populations from warm sites, providing evidence of local adaptation to both climate and pathogenic fungi. Budburst phenology and shoot blight were correlated with frost damage, subsequent shrub-form architecture, and mortality. While climate change models predict 6°C increases, plants transferred distances of 6°C at this time would not perform well; an intermediate transfer distance of less than 3°C would avoid maladaptation to the current environment during assisted migration. Thus, multiple and intermediate transfer phases to supplement local genetic variation will likely be necessary for effective assisted migration to accommodate current environments and large changes in climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tomorrow's forests face extreme pressures from contemporary climate change, invasive pests, and anthropogenic demands for other land uses. These pressures, collectively, demand land managers to reassess current and potential forest management practices. We discuss three considerations, functional restoration, assisted migration, and bioengineering, which are currently being debated in the literature and have the potential to be applied independently or concurrently across a variety of scales. The emphasis of functional restoration is to reestablish or maintain functions provided by the forest ecosystem, such as water quality, wildlife habitat, or carbon sequestration. Maintaining function may call upon actions such as assisted migration-moving tree populations within a species current range to aid adaptation to climate change or moving a species far outside its current range to avoid extinction-and we attempt to synthesize an array of assisted migration terminology. In addition, maintenance of species and the functions they provide may also require new technologies, such as genetic engineering, which, compared with traditional approaches to breeding for pest resistance, may be accomplished more rapidly to meet and overcome the challenges of invasive insect and disease pests. As managers develop holistic adaptive strategies to current and future anthropogenic stresses, functional restoration, assisted migration, and bioengineering, either separately or in combinations, deserve consideration, but must be addressed within the context of the restoration goal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Separating edaphic impacts on tree distributions from those of climate and geography is notoriously difficult. Aboveground and belowground factors play important roles, and determining their relative contribution to tree success will greatly assist in refining predictive models and forestry strategies in a changing climate., In a common glasshouse, seedlings of interior Douglas-fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) from multiple populations were grown in multiple forest soils. Fungicide was applied to half of the seedlings to separate soil fungal and nonfungal impacts on seedling performance. Soils of varying geographic and climatic distance from seed origin were compared, using a transfer function approach., Seedling height and biomass were optimized following seed transfer into drier soils, whereas survival was optimized when elevation transfer was minimised. Fungicide application reduced ectomycorrhizal root colonization by c. 50%, with treated seedlings exhibiting greater survival but reduced biomass., Local adaptation of Douglas-fir populations to soils was mediated by soil fungi to some extent in 56% of soil origin by response variable combinations. Mediation by edaphic factors in general occurred in 81% of combinations. Soil biota, hitherto unaccounted for in climate models, interacts with biogeography to influence plant ranges in a changing climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assisted migration (AM) is increasingly proposed to limit the impacts of climate change on vulnerable plant and animal populations. However, interpretations of AM as a purely precautionary action along with multiple definitions have hampered the development of precise policy frameworks. Here, our main objective is to identify what type of policy tools are needed for implementing AM programs as part of broader environmental policies. First, we argue that policy frameworks for translocations of endangered species that are subject to climatic stress are fundamentally different from translocations to reinforce climatically exposed ecosystems because the former are risky and stranded in strict regulations while the latter are open to merges with general landscape management. AM implementation can be based on a series of phases where policies should provide appropriate grounds closely related to extant environmental principles. During a “Triggering phase”, AM is clearly a prevention approach as considered by the Rio Declaration, if unambiguously based on evidence that population decline is mainly caused by climate change. During an “Operational phase”, we suggest that policies should enforce experimentation and be explicit on transparent coordination approaches for collating all available knowledge and ensure multi-actor participation prior to any large scale AM program. In addition, precautionary approaches are needed to minimize risks of translocation failures (maladaptation) that can be reduced through redundancy of multiple target sites. Lastly, monitoring and learning policies during an “Adaptive phase” would promote using flexible management rules to react and adjust to any early alerts, positive or negative, as hybridization with local individuals may represent an evolutionary chance. Our analysis of study cases indicates that except for two programs of productive forests in Canada, current AM programs are predominantly small-scale, experimental and applied to endangered species isolated from general environmental management. As the effects of climate change accumulate, policies could include AM as part of larger environmental programs like habitat restoration with common species seeking to provide stable ecosystems in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To understand the growth-promoting and disease-inhibiting activities of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) strains, the genomes of 12 Bacillus subtilis group strains with PGPR activity were sequenced and analyzed. These B. subtilis strains exhibited high genomic diversity, whereas the genomes of B. amyloliquefaciens strains (a member of the B. subtilis group) are highly conserved. A pairwise BLASTp matrix revealed that gene family similarity among Bacillus genomes ranges from 32 to 90%, with 2839 genes within the core genome of B. amyloliquefaciens subsp. plantarum. Comparative genomic analyses of B. amyloliquefaciens strains identified genes that are linked with biological control and colonization of roots and/or leaves, including 73 genes uniquely associated with subsp. plantarumstrains that have predicted functions related to signaling, transportation, secondary metabolite production, and carbon source utilization. Although B. amyloliquefaciens subsp. plantarum strains contain gene clusters that encode many different secondary metabolites, only polyketide biosynthetic clusters that encode difficidin and macrolactin are conserved within this subspecies. To evaluate their role in plant pathogen biocontrol, genes involved in secondary metabolite biosynthesis were deleted in a B. amyloliquefaciens subsp. plantarum strain, revealing that difficidin expression is critical in reducing the severity of disease, caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vesicatoria in tomato plants. This study defines genomic features of PGPR strains and links them with biocontrol activity and with host colonization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bacterial wilt is one of the main diseases of common beans and the use of cultivars with some level of resistance is fundamental for an adequate disease management. The reaction of 54 common bean genotypes to Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens pv. flaccumfaciens (Cff) was evaluated, and the colonization of cultivars and obstruction of primary xylem vessels at the petiole base were assessed. In greenhouse and laboratory tests, resistance was detected in the cultivars IAC Diplomata, IAC Alvorada, IAC Imperador, IPR Corujinha, and IPR Tangará, and in the lines P5-4-4-1 and C4-5-4-1-2. The Cff colonization rate was also slower in the resistant cultivars (IAC Diplomata, IAC Carioca Tybatã, and IAC Carioca Pyatã) and the percentage of obstruction of primary xylem vessels at the petiole base lower than in the susceptible cultivars (IAC Carioca and Pérola). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The idea of moving species beyond their historic range, known as assisted migration, challenges some of the conservation ideas and norms guiding sustainable forest management in North America: relying on historical benchmarks, mimicking natural disturbances, and reproducing current ecological species assemblages. In this context, our paper focuses on how an assisted migration policy for western larch has been developed in British Columbia, Canada, specifically examining institutional change at three different levels of policy ideas and in discourses oriented internally or externally in the policy process. Based on 46 interviews with policy actors across Canada, our results suggest that the deployment of the first assisted migration policy in Canada successfully avoided the controversy surrounding the idea in the scientific community by changing the scientific discourse associated with best forest management practices. The shift from an ecological discourse to a genetics discourse over forest policy in British Columbia signals what we might expect in future forest adaptation policy development in Canada. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One could argue that the development of western larch assisted migration (AM) policy in British Columbia was the result of a “policy window” largely caused by factors external to the actions of policy actors: western larch plantations in northern BC indicate that the species thrives even if planted far beyond its current range, thus representing an economic motive for AM; climate change projections and the mountain pine beetle epidemic represented a crisis situation that facilitated the deployment of a new and controversial policy option, the assisted migration of western larch, in forest policy in British Columbia. However, this “policy window” explanation disregard the relationship between the performative meaning of AM in its social and ecological context, and masks the actual politics of the discursive practices enlisting particular actor-networks in the western larch AM policy process. My analysis suggests that the western larch AM policy emerged from the relationship of specific policy actors with specific non-humans actors—including exotic and invasive species. Yet, aware of potential political risks of deploying this controversial practice, policy actors in British Columbia carefully circumscribed the purpose of western larch AM, distancing the western larch AM policy from exotic and invasive species. Additionally, western larch AM was framed as a natural extension of current tree regeneration standards and best practices in BC—thus seemingly representing “business as usual”, rather than a major reassemblage of the actor-networks structuring forest policy in BC. Comparing western larch policy discourses to policy discourses on AM in other provinces suggest that the differences in what actor-networks are enlisted largely explains why no other province in Canada has yet to develop an assisted migration policy. The policy implications of this study are that in the composition of Canada's future forests we should keep exotic and invasive species present in view. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the author's views on the ecology and evolution of biodiversity in various regions. Particular focus is given to the patterns of biodiversity hotspots, the plant species found in the Hengduan Mountains, and the colonization of the plant species. Other topics addressed include in situ diversification and heterogeneity of species.

Assisted colonization is a form of conservation translocation which introduces species at risk from extinction to new habitats, beyond their current range, in anticipation of more suitable conditions. Identifying which species, communities and ecosystems may benefit most from assisted colonization in coming decades is a key goal for conservation. Climate change is expected to lead to the loss or movement of suitable habitat for a range of species and anticipating which can be effectively conserved through assisted colonization is critical. Here, we identify a series of scenarios that may predispose terrestrial species to the need for assisted colonization in order to reduce extinction risk resulting from anthropogenic climate change and assemble a list of traits commonly associated with at-risk species. These traits may help to provide broad-scale guidance on how to select species to target for assisted colonization as a conservation management response to climate change. We also identify six key themes associated with successful conservation translocations including recipient site selection and preparation, a clear understanding of species biology and ecology, and taking lessons from invasive species research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]