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In recent years, several publications examined the underlying mechanisms that might have an impact on decision-making processes under time pressure. This study investigated how individual differences in attentional capability relate to decision making in complex dynamic offside events. A total of 24 professional football assistant referees (ARs) performed an offside decision-making task and an attention-demanding task. ARs with higher attentional capability along the horizontal meridian of their attentional focus made fewer mistakes when judging offside situations in football than ARs with lower capability. This implies that being able to rely on high-attentional capabilities in situations requiring conscious perception of multiple processes is likely to be beneficial for the ultimate decision-making performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In association football, the flash-lag effect appears to be a viable explanation for erroneous offside decision making. Due to this spatiotemporal illusion, assistant referees (ARs) perceive the player who receives the ball ahead of his real position. In this experiment, a laboratory decision-making task was used to demonstrate that international top-class ARs, compared with amateur soccer players, do not have superior perceptual sensitivity. They clearly modify their decision criterion according to the contextual needs and, therefore, show a higher response bias toward not responding to the stimulus, in particular in the most difficult situations. Thus, international ARs show evidence for response-level compensation, resulting in a specific cost (i.e., more misses), which clearly reflects the use of particular (cognitive) strategies. In summary, it appears that experts in offside decision making can be distinguished from novices more on the cognitive or decision-making level than on the perceptual level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the effect of two off-field training formats to improve offside decision making. One group trained with video simulations and another with computer animations. Feedback after every offside situation allowed assistant referees to compensate for the consequences of the flash-lag effect and to improve their decision-making accuracy. First, response accuracy improved and flag errors decreased for both training groups implying that training interventions with feedback taught assistant referees to better deal with the flash-lag effect. Second, the results demonstrated no effect of format, although assistant referees rated video simulations higher for fidelity than computer animations. This implies that a cognitive correction to a perceptual effect can be learned also when the format does not correspond closely with the original perceptual situation. Off-field offside decision-making training should be considered as part of training because it is a considerable help to gain more experience and to improve overall decision-making performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This two-experiment study aims to investigate the role of expertise in offside decision making (Experiment 1) and the effect of perceptual-cognitive training (Experiment 2). In Experiment 1, a video-based offside decision-making task followed by a frame recognition task demonstrated a bias toward flag errors and a forward memory shift for less-successful elite-standard assistant referees that is in line with the predictions from the flash-lag effect. In Experiment 2, an offside decision-making training program demonstrated a substantial progress from pre- to posttest for response accuracy, but not for accuracy of memory in the frame recognition task. In both experiments, no differences were found for visual scan patterns. First, these results suggest that less-successful elite-standard assistant referees are more affected by the flash-lag effect. Second, an off-field perceptual-cognitive training program can help assistant referees to deal with the perceptual consequences of the flash-lag illusion and to readjust their decision-making process accordingly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this article was to analyse whether the Interactive Video Test (IVT) is a useful tool for the practical off-field training of soccer assistant referees, and if its use could reduce erroneous on-field decisions when applying Law 11 of the Laws of the Game. Assistant referees were taken from the Spanish 2nd "B" and 3rd Divisions, and were divided into two groups, the Experimental Group (EG) and the Control Group (CG). The referees in the EG were trained with the Interactive Video Test by analysing 720 off-side decisions. Subsequently, both groups were assessed in on-field tests involving the simulation of 326 possible off-side situations. When the results of both groups were compared, there was a continuous improvement over time in the EG associated to the use of the IVT, significantly better than the improvement of the CG. Moreover, the IVT proved to be a good diagnostic tool to assess the skills of assistant referees in perceiving and evaluating off-side situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The aims of this chapter were twofold: 1) to describe the acceleration capacity during a linear straight sprinting test, measured by global positioning system, in match officials and 2) to analyze the differences attending to their status and competitive-level. Methods: Forty Spanish match officials who belonged to the Committee of Soccer Referees from Navarre (Spain) participated in this investigation. Participants were classified according to both, their competitive status: field referees (FR, n = 20) and assistant referees (AR, n = 20) and their competitive level: national referees (NR, n = 26) and provincial referees (PR, n = 14). Time in 30-m sprint (GPS_30T), mean velocity (GPS_Vmean) and maximum velocity (GPS_Vmax) were registered in the linear straight sprinting test (LSST) using global positioning system (GPS) devices (MinimaxX v4.0; Catapult Innovations™, Melbourne, Australia). Results: Despite trivial differences (ES = -0.14 to 0.07) were observed in GPS_30T and GPS_Vmean between status, moderate differences (ES = -0.52) were observed in GPS_Vmax between NR and PR. Conclusion: These findings suggest the suitability of using GPS devices to characterise acceleration tests over short distances in match officials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objective: The present study examined to what extent off-field offside decision-making training transfers to real-life offside situations. Design/methods: Eighteen Belgian assistant referees were included in the experiment. Ten assistant referees (i.e., training group) were exposed to a pre- and posttest and, in between, four off-field offside training sessions via a web-based training protocol. The remaining eight assistant referees participated in the control group and only completed the pre- and posttest. During both test sessions, which were conducted separately for each group, both an on- and off-field offside decision-making test was completed. Results: First, an increase in response accuracy and a decrease in flag errors were observed for the training group from pre- to posttest in both the on- and off-field offside test. Second, only the training group improved in the recall and recognition accuracy of the position of the receiving attacker at the moment of the pass. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that perceptual-cognitive skill training results in a positive and direct transfer to on-field offside decisions. Therefore, the structure and the content of the current training intervention mimics the perceptual difficulties of real-match situations and can help the assistant referees to mediate and enhance their offside decision-making skills, both on- and off-field. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The aim of this study was to analyze the somatotype of assistant referees and examine its correlation with physical performance during FIFA physical tests. Study subjects were referees from the Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF) and Paranese Football Federation (FPF) who appeared before the Physical Evaluation Committee of the FPF in order to submit to the physical fitness tests. The sample was comprised of 11 referees from the CBF and considered the elite of Brazil, and 34 FPF referees who officiate at regional level in the state of Parana. In order to determine body composition nine skin folds, nine body circumferences and four bone diameter measures were used. To assess variables related to physical fitness a battery of the following FIFA physical tests were used: two runs of 50 meters and 12 minute running tests. Data analysis of body composition indicated fat percentage of assistant referees from the CBF was 16.74±3.71%, and assistants of the FPF was 17.09±4.38ck. There were no statistically significant differences (p>O.05). With regard to somatotype, CBF assistants were classified as mesoendomorph and FPF assistants as endo-mesomorph, in other words, CBF assistants group showed a higher predominant muscular component over fat. The difference between somatotypes was statistically significant (DDS=2.22). In reference to the speed test the CBF assistant referees were faster than the FPF referees, the difference being statistically significant between results (p=0.0001 ). During a match, assistant referees perform a lesser physical effort than the main referee: their performance however was similar to the main referee in the physical tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, we investigated the accuracy of offside judgements of assistant referees in the English Premier League. The moment in the match, the position and movement speed of the assistant referee, attacker and second-last defender, together with the angle of view for the assistant referee were all considered to underlie incorrect decisions. The error rate was 17.5% (868 of 4960 situations). As the English assistant referees tended not to signal in doubtful situations (c = 0.91), there was an overall bias towards non-flag errors (773 non-flag errors vs. 95 flag errors). The flash-lag hypothesis could explain all flag errors, whereas the optical-error hypothesis could explain a proportion of the non-flag errors (45.4%). Fatigue, movement speed, and angle of view did not have a detrimental effect on offside decision making. In conclusion, there were fewer flag errors than in the 2002 and 2006 FIFA World Cups, whereas the number of non-flag errors rose. The increased awareness of factors involved in offside decision making and the instructions to give the benefit of the doubt to attackers could have contributed to this situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Time-motion analyses and physiological measurements were performed to investigate the physiological demands of football referees (n = 15) and assistant referees (n = 15) in international games and to examine whether high-intensity running (HIR) correlates to the referees' ability to keep up with play. Total distance covered (10.27 ± 0.90 vs. 6.76 ± 0.83 km) and HIR (1.92 ± 0.58 vs. 0.97 ± 0.22 km) was higher (P < 0.05) for referees than assistant referees, while sprinting distance was not different. Referees covered 0.89 ± 0.37 km by backwards running and assistant referees covered 1.54 ± 0.66 km by sideways running. Mean heart rate was higher (P < 0.05) for referees than assistant referees (150 ± 3 vs. 123 ± 3 b.p.m.), whereas blood lactate was not different. Backwards/sideways running decreased (P < 0.05) from the first to the last 15-min period for referees (49%) and assistant referees (42%), whereas HIR was unaltered. HIR was inversely correlated with the five highest distances from infringements in both halves (r = -0.60 and -0.58, P < 0.05). In conclusion, international match officials carry out an important amount of HIR throughout games, while low-intensity and unorthodox running activities are reduced during games. Referees performing the most high-intensity work are better to keep up with play. The match activities differ significantly between referees and assistant referees, which should be considered in training and testing procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In association football, two similar but arguably different refereeing roles are required, those of the referee and assistant referee. Role specificity was investigated with a foul play assessment task and an offside decision-making task. Deliberate practice was investigated to account for role-specific differences. First, role specificity was clearly observed. Second, years of officiating, hours of practice per week, and number of matches officiated were each positively correlated with skill. The results support role specificity in association football refereeing. Further research should help to create role-specific perception and decision-making training programmes both for referees and assistant referees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this investigation was to identify the magnitude of psychological stress reported by soccer referees and assistant referees (linesmen). One hundred and fifty-six soccer referees who were members of the Turkish Soccer Referees' Committee responded to a survey that assessed perceived stress related to refereeing. Results showed that mean ratings of psychological stress scores of referees ranged between "a very little" and "moderate amount". Results also showed that there was no significant difference between referees' and assistant referees' magnitude of psychological stress. These results were consistent with those of previous studies, suggesting that most sport referees do not experience much stress while refereeing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Baldo et al. (2002) and Helsen et al. (2006) considered the flash-lag effect to explain errors made by assistant referees when judging offside in association football. The main aims of the present study were as follows: (1) to determine whether the flash-lag effect emerges in offside situations on the field of play or off the field when presented as computer animations or as video footage of real-life matches; (2) to examine offside decision-making errors in two standards of assistant referee - international FIFA and Belgian national referees. The results support the flash-lag hypothesis in several ways. First, both the FIFA and Belgian assistant referees were more likely to make errors by raising their flag when they had to assess offside situations on the field of play and when presented as three-a-side computer animations. Second, more flag errors were made when the defender moved in the opposite direction to that of the attacker. Third, the strategy of raising the flag in case of doubt was not observed when an interpretation of the offside law had to be made about the involvement of play of an attacker. Future research is needed to examine the extent to which on- and off-the-field training sessions can be used as training tools to improve offside decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which aims to determine and compare the somatotype and body composition of principal soccer referees and assistant soccer referees from the state of Paraná in Brazil. The participants are all working for the Brazilian Soccer Confederation (CBF Confederaçao Brasileira de Futebol). It is concluded that refereeing category was not influenced by the morphological profile of the referees who were analyzed.

The aim of this study was to describe the kinematical demands placed on soccer assistant referees during the 2003 U-17 World Championship, and to examine the relationship between the results in the fitness tests adopted by FIFA and match activities. Twenty-two international-level assistant referees were observed during 12 matches and computerized analysis of match activities was performed using a two-dimensional photogrammetric video analysis system based on DLT (direct lineal transformation) algorithms. Before the start of the tournament, the assistant referees completed a 2 x 50-m sprint test and a 12-minute run test. Assistant referees covered on average 6137 ± 539 m during the matches, with 20% of the total distance covered at high velocities (speeds faster than 13 km⋅h-1). During the second half, time spent standing still increased (P < 0.01) and distance covered jogging (P < 0.05), cruising (P < 0.01) and moving sideways (P < 0.001) decreased. The score in the 12-minute run test showed a low correlation with the entire match distance (r = 0.24; P > 0.05) and with the time spent exercising at a high intensity (r = 0.35; P > 0.05). The 50-m sprint time was not significantly correlated (r = 0.38; P > 0.05) with time spent within the high-intensity activities category. The results of this study demonstrate that assistant referees experience unique kinematical demands during soccer officiating and that the score m the battery of fitness tests adopted by FIFA was not correlated to match activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oudejans, Bakker, and Beek (2007) recognize several relevant aspects of offside judgements in association football in the paper by Helsen, Gilis, and Weston (2006). We agree that the existing knowledge base on offside assessment needs to be expanded for two reasons. First, from a theoretical point of view it is important to examine how assistant referees can learn to deal with the limitations of the human visual information processing system. Second, from a practical point of view it is relevant to understand better refereeing performances and to identify potential explanations for incorrect offside decisions that could impact on the final outcome of the game. Oudejans et al. (2007) believe we both misinterpreted the optical error hypothesis and that our data set was unsuited to test it. Below, we react to these comments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The referee has responsibility for control of players' behaviour during competitive football and implementing the rules of the game. To do this, the referee and the two assistant referees are obliged to keep up with play. Referees cover 10,000 m on average during a game, mean heart rate is about 160 – 165 beats · min -1 and oxygen uptake is close to 80% of maximum ( &Vdot; O 2max ). Assistant referees cover approximately 7500 m, mean heart rate is about 140 beats · min -1 and the corresponding oxygen uptake is 65% &Vdot; O 2max . Both groups display evidence of fatigue towards the end of the game, a phenomenon that has not been thoroughly examined for nutritional interventions. The estimated energy expenditure of referees during a game exceeds 5600 kJ. Both referees and assistant referees execute unorthodox patterns of movement during match-play that increase energy expenditure over normal locomotion. As high standards of fitness and decision making are expected of professional referees, there are nutritional consequences associated with the training regimes they adopt. The effects of nutritional interventions on cognitive performance during the later stages of a game are in need of further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Corrections to the articles "Physiological profiles of South African soccer referees and assistant referees" and "The relationship between burnout and mood state among student rugby union players" that were published in the December 2011 issue are presented.