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The gut microbiome offers important ecological benefits to the host; however, our understanding of the functional microbiome in relation to wildlife adaptation, especially for translocated endangered species, is lagging. In this study, we adopted a comparative metagenomics approach to test whether the microbiome diverges for translocated and resident species with different adaptive potentials. The composition and function of the microbiome of sympatric Przewalski's horses and Asiatic wild asses in desert steppe were compared for the first time using the metagenomic shotgun sequencing approach. We identified a significant difference in microbiome composition regarding the microbes present and their relative abundances, while the diversity of microbe species was similar. Furthermore, the functional profile seemed to converge between the two hosts, with genes related to core metabolism function tending to be more abundant in wild asses. Our results indicate that sympatric wild equids differ in their microbial composition while harboring a stable microbial functional core, which may enable them to survive in challenging habitats. A higher abundance of beneficial taxa, such as Akkermansia, and genes related to metabolism pathways and enzymes, such as lignin degradation, may contribute to more diverse diet choices and larger home ranges of wild asses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gut microbiome offers important ecological benefits to the host; however, our understanding of the functional microbiome in relation to wildlife adaptation, especially for translocated endangered species, is lagging. In this study, we adopted a comparative metagenomics approach to test whether the microbiome diverges for translocated and resident species with different adaptive potentials. The composition and function of the microbiome of sympatric Przewalski’s horses and Asiatic wild asses in desert steppe were compared for the first time using the metagenomic shotgun sequencing approach. We identified a significant difference in microbiome composition regarding the microbes present and their relative abundances, while the diversity of microbe species was similar. Furthermore, the functional profile seemed to converge between the two hosts, with genes related to core metabolism function tending to be more abundant in wild asses. Our results indicate that sympatric wild equids differ in their microbial composition while harboring a stable microbial functional core, which may enable them to survive in challenging habitats. A higher abundance of beneficial taxa, such as Akkermansia, and genes related to metabolism pathways and enzymes, such as lignin degradation, may contribute to more diverse diet choices and larger home ranges of wild asses.

Present study was carried out on behavioural activity of Indian Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur) in captivity at Sakkarbaug zoo Junagadh, Gujarat, India. Indian wild ass is critically endangered species fall into schedule-I. Two (male and female) wild ass of 4-5 year old was observed. Two hours observation was taken daily at morning. Standing, walking, grazing, running, facial, fighting, grooming, eating, etc behaviours were recorded. The observations of various behaviour activities of Indian wild ass were recorded from August 2019 to February 2020. Two different types of behaviours like active behaviour and inactive behaviour were observed with male and female in captivity. The time interval method was used. The wild ass's activity was registered in every ten minutes, twelve times in two hours at morning. Sixteen types of behavioural activities were recorded in the captive wild ass. They were displaying different types of activities. Peaceful sharing of food with one another without competition was found in wild ass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Loss of genetic diversity due to drift and inbreeding reduces a population’s ability to respond to environmental change and may result in inbreeding depression. The Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus), regionally also known as Gobi khulan, Turkmen kulan, or Persian onager, has become confined to less than 3% of its historic distribution range. Remaining populations in Central Asia outside of the Mongolian Gobi are small and fragmented. Questions concerning subpopulation status remain disputed and concerns over the viability of these populations have been raised because of small size, past bottlenecks, or recent founder events. We used non-invasive faecal samples to assess the genetic diversity and divergence among Turkmen kulan and Persian onager from five free-ranging and one captive population from Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and Iran and compared their genetic constitution to the large autochthonous population in the Mongolian Gobi. We observed loss of genetic diversity (drift and inbreeding) in the captive and reintroduced populations as well as in one rapidly declining autochthonous population. Population differentiation and structure using microsatellites and mtDNA based phylogenetic analysis do not support the current separation of the autochthonous populations of Turkmen kulan and Persian onager into different subspecies, but rather suggest a cline with the Iranian population in Bahram-e-Goor at the southern end and the Turkmen population in Badhyz at the northern end falling into two distinct clusters, and the northern Iranian population in Touran being intermediate. We compare our findings to other population genetics studies of equids and discuss the implications of our findings for the future conservation of the Asiatic wild ass in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Effective population size, a central concept in conservation biology, is now routinely estimated from genetic surveys and can also be theoretically predicted from demographic, life‐history, and mating‐system data. By evaluating the consistency of theoretical predictions with empirically estimated effective size, insights can be gained regarding life‐history characteristics and the relative impact of different life‐history traits on genetic drift. These insights can be used to design and inform management strategies aimed at increasing effective population size. We demonstrated this approach by addressing the conservation of a reintroduced population of Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus). We estimated the variance effective size (Nev) from genetic data ( N ev = 24.3) and formulated predictions for the impacts on Nev of demography, polygyny, female variance in lifetime reproductive success (RS), and heritability of female RS. By contrasting the genetic estimation with theoretical predictions, we found that polygyny was the strongest factor affecting genetic drift because only when accounting for polygyny were predictions consistent with the genetically measured Nev. The comparison of effective‐size estimation and predictions indicated that 10.6% of the males mated per generation when heritability of female RS was unaccounted for (polygyny responsible for 81% decrease in Nev) and 19.5% mated when female RS was accounted for (polygyny responsible for 67% decrease in Nev). Heritability of female RS also affected Nev; h f 2 = 0.91 (heritability responsible for 41% decrease in Nev). The low effective size is of concern, and we suggest that management actions focus on factors identified as strongly affecting N e v, namely, increasing the availability of artificial water sources to increase number of dominant males contributing to the gene pool. This approach, evaluating life‐history hypotheses in light of their impact on effective population size, and contrasting predictions with genetic measurements, is a general, applicable strategy that can be used to inform conservation practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Fascioliasis is a highly pathogenic zoonotic disease caused by the liver trematodes Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica. Within the multidisciplinary initiative against this disease, there is the aim of understanding how this disease reached a worldwide distribution, with important veterinary and medical repercussions, by elucidating the spreading steps followed by the two fasciolids from their paleobiogeograhical origins. Fasciola eggs were detected in paleofaeces of a donkey, probably the present-day endangered Persian onager Equus hemionus onager , found in the Chehrabad salt mine archaeological site, Zanjan province, northwestern Iran. The biological remains dated back to the Sassanid period, 224–651 AD. Egg characteristics allowed for their specific ascription to F. hepatica. The interest of this finding relies on the fact of being the first archaeological finding of Fasciola in Asia and the Near East. Moreover, it allows to reach many conclusions about historical, epidemiological and spreading aspects of the disease. The finding in Chehrabad indicates that, at that time, this fasciolid had already spread through the Zagros mountains eastward from the Fertile Crescent. In that region and in ancient Egypt, livestock domestication played a crucial role in facilitating the disease spread during the postdomestication period. Donkeys appear at present to be usually infected by fasciolids in countries of the Fertile Crescent - Ancient Egypt region or neighbouring that region, with prevalences from low to very high. The high pathogenicity and mortality induced by Fasciola in these equines should be considered as an additional potential factor among the causes of the extinctions of E. h. hemippus in Syria, E. h. hydruntinus in the Anatolia-Balkans area, E. h. onager in the Caucasus and maybe also its decline in Iran. Indeed, Eurasiatic wild asses were present in the region and neighbourhood of the Fertile Crescent when the domestication of the livestock reservoirs of Fasciola began. Graphical Abstract Unlabelled Image Highlights • Fasciola eggs were found in palaeofaeces of the present-day endangered Persian onager. • This finding in Chehrabad dated back to the Sassanid period, 224–651 CE, in Iran. • Egg characteristics allowed for their specific ascription to Fasciola hepatica. • This fasciolid had, at that time, already spread eastward from the Fertile Crescent. • Its pathogenicity could be among the onager subspecies population extinction causes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study which evaluates low genetic diversity of the endangered Indian wild ass Equus hemionus khur by using microsatellite analysis. Topics discussed include description of two species of the Asiatic wild asses including E. hemionus and E. kiang, on the basis of morphology and karyotyping; role of microsatellite loci in revealing the genetic diversity at a nuclear level; and use of sample collection and genomic DNA extraction procedures.

Mongolia's Gobi Desert ecosystem, a stronghold for populations of the Asiatic wild ass (khulan) Equus hemionus and the goitered gazelle Gazella subgutturosa, faces conservation challenges as a result of rapid economic development, including mining-related infrastructure projects. There is a paucity of reliable data on population abundance for these ungulates in the region, which makes it difficult to assess how they are responding to increasing anthropogenic pressure. Our aim was to obtain abundance estimates for khulan and goitered gazelles to inform their management and form the basis of a long-term monitoring programme. Each year during 2012–2015 we surveyed a total of 64 line transects spaced 20 km apart, with a total of 3,464 km of survey effort across 78,717 km2. Distance sampling analysis provided annual estimates of density and abundance, which were cross-referenced with the results of an aerial survey conducted in 2013. Overall, we observed 784 groups (14,608 individuals) of khulan and 1,033 groups (3,955 individuals) of goitered gazelles during the four surveys. The abundance estimates for 2013 were 35,899 (95% CI 22,680–40,537) khulan and 28,462 (95% CI 21,326–37,987) goitered gazelles. These estimates were congruent with the results from the aerial survey, which overlapped spatially and temporally with our ground-based survey. Our findings confirm that Mongolia's Gobi Desert supports the largest population of khulan and goitered gazelles in the world, and we provide a critical update on the status of the two species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trade-offs such as the ones between reproduction and longevity or present and future reproduction are believed to shape reproductive patterns. We here used zoo data to investigate trade-offs and life histories in four taxa of Asiatic (Equus hemionus ssp.) and African wild asses (Equus africanus ssp.). All taxa showed even in captivity peak birth rates during the periods of highest food availability in their natural environments. Sex-specific survival rates with females living longer than males were evident in kulan and onager but not in kiang and Somali wild ass, pointing towards different life-history strategies even among closely related taxa. Females achieved their highest reproductive output earlier in life than males, which is typical for polygynous mating systems. Offspring number and longevity were positively rather than negatively correlated. Taken together evidence for reproductive trade-offs was weak, though the length of the reproductive period was negatively related to birth rates within the reproductive period. Birth intervals increased with female age, probably reflecting detrimental effects of senescence. Despite several limitations, zoo data seem to be useful to better understand the reproductive biology of endangered, rare or cryptic species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species distribution models (SDMs) are often limited by the use of coarse-resolution environmental variables and by the number of observations required for their calibration. This is particularly true in the case of elusive animals. Here, we developed a SDM by combining three elements: a database of explanatory variables, mapped at a fine resolution; a systematic sampling scheme; and an intensive survey of indirect observations. Using MaxEnt, we developed the SDM for the population of the Asiatic wild ass ( Equus hemionus), a rare and elusive species, at three spatial scales: 10, 100, and 1000 m per pixel. We used indirect observations of feces mounds. We constructed 14 layers of explanatory variables, in five categories: water, topography, biotic conditions, climatic variables and anthropogenic variables. Woody vegetation cover and slopes were found to have the strongest effect on the distribution of wild ass and were included as the main predictors in the SDM. Model validation revealed that an intensive survey of feces mounds and high-resolution predictor layers resulted in a highly accurate and informative SDM. Fine-grain (10 and 100 m) SDMs can be utilized to: (1) characterize the variables influencing species distribution at high resolution and local scale, including anthropogenic effects and geomorphologic features; (2) detect potential population activity centers; (3) locate potential corridors of movement and possible isolated habitat patches. Such information may be useful for the conservation efforts of the Asiatic wild ass. This approach could be applied to other elusive species, particularly large mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In resource-poor environments many large herbivores do not perform seasonal migrations but show unpredictable, long-range movements within a given season. The few studies that have examined drivers for within season long-range movements suggest that these movements are a response to spatiotemporal dynamics of foraging resources. We tested this hypothesis and were especially interested in detecting dynamics of foraging habitat which may influence high mobility of khulan, Equus hemionus , during summers in the Dzungarian Gobi of Mongolia. We used six years of ground census data combined with remotely sensed imagery of vegetation productivity (NDVI) to build a dynamic habitat model. We subsequently predicted khulan habitat suitability for each of the seven 16-day NDVI intervals every summer between 2004 and 2009 and examined variability of the resulting 42 prediction maps to characterize spatiotemporal dynamics in khulan foraging habitat. Our analyses showed khulan summer foraging habitat was highly predictable with little spatiotemporal variability making it unlikely that broad scale variability of foraging habitats can explain the high mobility of khulan. The few and small areas that did show khulan habitat variability were related to locations around water sources. In addition, we found that khulan avoided habitats beyond 21 km from water sources. Together these findings suggest that water availability and switching among the sparsely located water bodies rather than broad scale dynamics of foraging habitats may be the key driver for the high mobility of khulan in the Dzungarian Gobi. Our findings highlight the importance of securing access to and connectivity among water bodies for wild ungulates and the need for further studies on possible drivers of nomadic movements in drylands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animals receive anti-predator benefits from social behavior. As part of a group, individuals spend less time being vigilant, and vigilance decreases with increasing group size. This phenomenon, called “the many-eyes effect”, together with the “encounter dilution effect”, is considered among the most important factors determining individual vigilance behavior. However, in addition to group size, other social and environmental factors also influence the degree of vigilance, including disturbance from human activities. In our study, we examined vigilance behavior of Khulans (Equus hemionus) in the Xinjiang Province in western China to test whether and how human disturbance and group size affect vigilance. According to our results, Khulan showed a negative correlation between group size and the percentage time spent vigilant, although this negative correlation depended on the groups’ disturbance level. Khulan in the more disturbed area had a dampened benefit from increases in group size, compared to those in the undisturbed core areas. Provision of continuous areas of high-quality habitat for Khulans will allow them to form larger undisturbed aggregations and to gain foraging benefits through reduced individual vigilance, as well as anti-predator benefits through increased probability of predator detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Histological approaches to extant mammalian life histories (LHs) provide the basis for reconstructing LHs of fossil mammals. They are of special interest in lineages such as perissodactyls that played a key role in fossil ecosystems. We studied an ontogenetic series of Equus hemionus (Asiatic wild ass), the most appropriate extant representative of fossil horses. We analyzed growth marks in femora of 10 specimens of different ontogenetic stages and habitats. Bone tissue types and vascular canal orientation vary both during ontogeny and within cross-sections. Skeletochronology generally fits previous age estimates from dental eruption patterns. Our wild adult female attained skeletal maturity at the age of four, the wild male at 5 years. Our results do not only contribute to our knowledge of Asiatic wild ass but they also show that bone histology is a valid tool in reconstructing LH evolution in the horse lineage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arjinshan National Nature Reserve (ANNR) is one of 3 refuges of the endemic ungulates Tibetan wild ass ( Equus kiang), Chiru ( Pantholops hodgsonii) and wild yak ( Bos mutus) that are endangered by natural and anthropogenic factors in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP). Identifying habitat suitability is critical for species protection management. We used a GIS-based niche model to delimit and classify habitat suitability using an integrated assessment system, which included 9 biotic and abiotic factors. We divided the research area into 4 habitat types for these ungulates: (1) high suitability habitat; (2) moderate suitability habitat; (3) low suitability habitat; and (4) unsuitable area. Results suggested that chiru have the most areas of high and moderate suitability habitats while Tibetan wild ass had the largest areas of low suitability habitat and unsuitable area. Wild yak had the largest area of moderate and low suitability habitat, but high suitability habitats for wild yak were smaller than those of other 2 ungulates. There was overlap of high-quality habitat for the three kinds of ungulates in the vicinity of Kardun inspection station, which could be regarded as the core area for the coexistence and conservation of these endangered ungulate populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The way in which animals move and use the landscape is influenced by the spatial distribution of resources, and is of importance when considering species conservation. We aimed at exploring how landscape-related factors affect a large herbivore’s space-use patterns by using a combined approach, integrating movement (displacement and recursions) and habitat selection analyses. We studied the endangered Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus) in the Negev Desert, Israel, using GPS monitoring and direct observation. We found that the main landscape-related factors affecting the species’ space-use patterns, on a daily and seasonal basis, were vegetation cover, water sources and topography. Two main habitat types were selected: high-elevation sites during the day (specific microclimate: windy on warm summer days) and streambed surroundings during the night (coupled with high vegetation when the animals were active in summer). Distribution of recursion times (duration between visits) revealed a 24-hour periodicity, a pattern that could be widespread among large herbivores. Characterizing frequently revisited sites suggested that recursion movements were mainly driven by a few landscape features (water sources, vegetation patches, high-elevation points), but also by social factors, such as territoriality, which should be further explored. This study provided complementary insights into the space-use patterns of E. hemionus. Understanding of the species’ space-use patterns, at both large and fine spatial scale, is required for developing appropriate conservation protocols. Our approach could be further applied for studying the space-use patterns of other species in heterogeneous landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small populations are prone to loss of genetic variation and hence to a reduction in their evolutionary potential. Therefore, studying the mating system of small populations and its potential effects on genetic drift and genetic diversity is of high importance for their viability assessments. The traditional method for studying genetic mating systems is paternity analysis. Yet, as small populations are often rare and elusive, the genetic data required for paternity analysis are frequently unavailable. The endangered Asiatic wild ass ( Equus hemionus), like all equids, displays a behaviourally polygynous mating system; however, the level of polygyny has never been measured genetically in wild equids. Combining noninvasive genetic data with stochastic modelling of shifts in allele frequencies, we developed an alternative approach to paternity analysis for studying the genetic mating system of the re-introduced Asiatic wild ass in the Negev Desert, Israel. We compared the shifts in allele frequencies (as a measure of genetic drift) that have occurred in the wild ass population since re-introduction onset to simulated scenarios under different proportions of mating males. We revealed a strongly polygynous mating system in which less than 25% of all males participate in the mating process each generation. This strongly polygynous mating system and its potential effect on the re-introduced population's genetic diversity could have significant consequences for the long-term persistence of the population in the Negev. The stochastic modelling approach and the use of allele-frequency shifts can be further applied to systems that are affected by genetic drift and for which genetic data are limited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reintroductions may play an important role in re-establishing key ecosystem functions and are potentially a valuable ecosystem-restoration tool. Here, we focus on the role of reintroduced ungulates as seeds dispersers - a key process in shaping plant community structure and dynamics. In a comparative study, we investigated which plant species are dispersed by three sympatric ungulates in the Negev desert, Israel: Arabian oryx O ryx leucoryx, Asiatic wild ass E quus hemionus and dorcas gazelle G azella dorcas. The oryx and wild ass were locally extirpated and recently reintroduced while the gazelle is the only wide-ranging ungulate that has existed continuously in the region. We hypothesized that although all three species are ungulates, because of expected differences in diet resulting from the differences in their size and digestive characteristics, there will be little overlap in their role as seed dispersers. In addition, we experimentally tested the importance of ingestion of the seeds of the keystone acacia A cacia raddiana and the presence of dung on germination success and seedlings growth. We found that each of the ungulates dispersed a different assemblage of plant species with little overlap, highlighting the importance of the reintroduction of both species in ecosystem restoration. Oryx were the key dispersers of acacia seeds, and oryx-ingested seeds planted with oryx pellets had a germination success 250 times higher than non-ingested seeds planted without pellets. Seedlings from ingested seeds also grew faster than seedlings from non-ingested seeds. We found little redundancy between ungulates as seed dispersers in this region, highlighting the importance of reintroductions as a restorative process even when other species from the same guild still exist in the wild. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the dynamics of genetic structures which arise during a population's range expansion can be applied to the conservation of recovering species and species that are shifting their range. Theoretical models, supported by several empirical findings, have indicated that fine-scaled genetic structure can arise at the wave front of a spatially expanding population. We explored the development of population genetic structure in the reintroduced Asiatic wild ass ( Equus hemionus) in Israel, four generations after the onset of reintroduction, during which the population experienced demographic growth and range expansion over a complex landscape. Blood samples of the 'founding-population' and fecal samples of the 'wild-population', collected throughout the range of distribution were analyzed using mtDNA markers. Fecal samples were delimitated to 'subpopulations' according to their geographical locations. The 'East' subpopulation, at the wave front of the wild population's distribution, was found to be significantly different than the rest of the population (AMOVA, Φ = 0.13, P = 0.04). These findings were supported by an F-test, Spatial-AMOVA and a Barrier analysis. The 'East' region is characterized by high quality habitat patches and low landscape connectivity to the rest of the area, which possibly led to its relative isolation. The 'East' subpopulation was probably initiated following a founder-effect of dispersers from the release area, which remained in the 'new area', due to its high habitat quality. This genetic structure, though it might diminish over time due to gene flow and additional range expansion, has the potential of facilitating adaptive evolution and thereby affecting the population's long term persistence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Brain midline shift (MLS) is a significant factor in brain CT diagnosis. In this paper, we present a new method of automatically detecting and quantifying brain midline shift in traumatic injury brain CT images. The proposed method automatically picks out the CT slice on which midline shift can be observed most clearly and uses automatically detected anatomical markers to delineate the deformed midline and quantify the shift. For each anatomical marker, the detector generates five candidate points. Then the best candidate for each marker is selected based on the statistical distribution of features characterizing the spatial relationships among the markers. Experiments show that the proposed method outperforms previous methods, especially in the cases of large intra-cerebral hemorrhage and missing ventricles. A brain CT retrieval system is also developed based on the brain midline shift quantification results. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Asiatic wild asses Equus hemionus are difficult to catch as most populations are subject to poaching and are thus very shy. Wild asses run fast and groups tend to split up when disturbed or chased. Free-range darting normally only allows the capture of single individuals, and the recommended anaesthetic protocol requires the use of the potent opiate ethorphine, which is highly toxic for humans and subject to special purchase and import regulations. In the following, we describe a corral capture method developed in Altyn Emel National Park in southeastern Kazakhstan. Round-ups of Asiatic wild asses were done at night by use of cars and strong lights to reduce the speed of fleeing asses by impeding their ability to see the terrain. The method provides an additional tool for capturing free-ranging wild asses, and contrary to previously described methods, it does allow the simultaneous capture of groups of animals without the need for chemical immobilisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Noninvasive genetic sampling has increasingly been used in ecological and conservation studies during the last decade. A major part of the noninvasive genetic literature is dedicated to the search for optimal protocols, by comparing different methods of collection, preservation and extraction of DNA from noninvasive materials. However, the lack of quantitative comparisons among these studies and the possibility that different methods are optimal for different systems make it difficult to decide which protocol to use. Moreover, most studies that have compared different methods focused on a single factor - collection, preservation or extraction - while there could be interactions between these factors. We designed a factorial experiment, as a pilot study, aimed at exploring the effect of several collection, preservation and extraction methods, and the interactions between them, on the quality and amplification success of DNA obtained from Asiatic wild ass ( Equus hemionus) faeces in Israel. The amplification success rates of one mitochondrial DNA and four microsatellite markers differed substantially as a function of collection, preservation and extraction methods and their interactions. The most efficient combination for our system integrated the use of swabs as a collection method with preservation at −20 °C and with the Qiagen DNA Stool Kit with modifications as the DNA extraction method. The significant interaction found between the collection, preservation methods and the extraction methods reinforces the importance of conducting a factorial design experiment, rather than examining each factor separately, as a pilot study before initiating a full-scale noninvasive research project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Accurately estimating abundance of wildlife is critical for establishing effective conservation and management strategies. Aerial methodologies for estimating abundance are common in developed countries, but they are often impractical for remote areas of developing countries where many of the world’s endangered and threatened fauna exist. The alternative terrestrial methodologies can be constrained by limitations on access, technology, and human resources, and have rarely been comprehensively conducted for large terrestrial mammals at landscape scales. We attempted to overcome these problems by incorporating local peoples into a simultaneous point count of Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus) and goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) across the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area, Mongolia. Paired observers collected abundance and covariate metrics at 50 observation points and we estimated population sizes using distance sampling theory, but also assessed individual observer error to examine potential bias introduced by the large number of minimally trained observers. We estimated 5671 (95% CI=3611–8907) wild asses and 5909 (95% CI=3762–9279) gazelle inhabited the 11,027km2 study area at the time of our survey and found that the methodology developed was robust at absorbing the logistical challenges and wide range of observer abilities. This initiative serves as a functional model for estimating terrestrial wildlife abundance while integrating local people into scientific and conservation projects. This, in turn, creates vested interest in conservation by the people who are most influential in, and most affected by, the outcomes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Equine guttural pouch tympany (GPT) is a hereditary condition affecting foals in their first months of life. Complex segregation analyses in Arabian and German warmblood horses showed the involvement of a major gene as very likely. Genome-wide linkage and association analyses including a high density marker set of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were performed to map the genomic region harbouring the potential major gene for GPT. A total of 85 Arabian and 373 German warmblood horses were genotyped on the Illumina equine SNP50 beadchip. Non-parametric multipoint linkage analyses showed genome-wide significance on horse chromosomes (ECA) 3 for German warmblood at 16-26 Mb and 34-55 Mb and for Arabian on ECA15 at 64-65 Mb. Genome-wide association analyses confirmed the linked regions for both breeds. In Arabian, genome-wide association was detected at 64 Mb within the region with the highest linkage peak on ECA15. For German warmblood, signals for genome-wide association were close to the peak region of linkage at 52 Mb on ECA3. The odds ratio for the SNP with the highest genome-wide association was 0.12 for the Arabian. In conclusion, the refinement of the regions with the Illumina equine SNP50 beadchip is an important step to unravel the responsible mutations for GPT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Magic bowls have been found in increasing numbers. The recently discovered example, published in this study, was written for a client who had the title of 'Rav'. It thus provides additional evidence for the use of amulets by rabbis in Babylonia in the late Sassanian and early Islamic periods. The new bowl contains a rich and varied text. It is directed against various classes of demons and, specifically, against a lilith named Mulit. The latter is exorcized with the 'stick and carrot' approach. The magician first attempts to convince the female demon to leave the clients' house, with an offer of an unlimited supply of food and drink, namely, the flesh of wild asses and the blood of gazelles. He then threatens to send mighty and merciless angels that will overpower her if she resists. The text also enriches our understanding of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, providing the first attestation in this dialect of the singular form ..., 'high water', and a new meaning for ..., 'agitation, storm'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The Equidae have a long evolutionary history that has interested palaeontologists for a long time. Their morphology-based taxonomy, however, is a matter of controversy. Since most equid species are now extinct, the phylogenetic tree based on genetic data can be established only imperfectly via deduction of present day genomes and little is known about the past genetic diversity of these species. Recent studies of ancient DNA preserved in fossil bones have led to a simplification of the phylogenetic tree and the classification system. The situation is still particularly unclear for the wild asses whose geographical distribution in the Pleistocene and the early Holocene stretched from Northern Africa to Eurasia before they became endangered or extinct. Therefore, we performed a phylogeographic study of bone remains of wild asses covering their former geographic range over the past 100,000 years based on the analysis of ancient mitochondrial DNA. Here, we will not show but rather discuss our results calling the morphology-based classification into question and indicating that morphological criteria alone can be an unreliable index in inferring various equid species. Indeed, the diversity of mitochondrial lineages in populations with similar morphology along with genetic signatures shared between morphologically distinct animals reveal a significant morphological plasticity among Equus species. The classification of palaeontological species based on morphological and genetic criteria will be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large mammals re-introduced into harsh and unpredictable environments are vulnerable to stochastic effects, particularly in times of global climate change. The Mongolian Gobi is home to several rare large ungulates such as re-introduced Przewalski's horses (Equus ferus przewalskii) and Asiatic wild asses (Equus hemionus), but also to a millennium-old seminomadic livestock herding culture. The Gobi is prone to large inter-annual environmental fluctuations, but the winter 2009/2010 was particularly severe. Millions of livestock died and the Przewalski's horse population in the Gobi crashed. We used spatially explicit livestock loss statistics, ranger survey data and GPS telemetry to provide insight into the effect of a catastrophic climate event on the two sympatric wild equid species and the livestock population in light of their different space use strategies. Herders in and around the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area lost on average 67% of their livestock. Snow depth varied locally, resulting in livestock losses following an east-west gradient. Herders had few possibilities for evasion, as competition for available winter camps was high. Przewalski's horses used three different winter ranges, two in the east and one in the west. Losses averaged 60%, but differed hugely between east and west. Space use of Przewalski's horses was extremely conservative, as groups did not attempt to venture beyond their known home ranges. Asiatic wild asses seemed to have suffered few losses by shifting their range westwards. The catastrophic winter 2009/2010 provided a textbook example for how vulnerable small and spatially confined populations are in an environment prone to environmental fluctuations and catastrophes. This highlights the need for disaster planning by local herders, multiple reintroduction sites with spatially dispersed populations for re-introduced Przewalski's horses, and a landscape-level approach beyond protected area boundaries to allow for migratory or nomadic movements in Asiatic wild asses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Przewalski's horse ( Equus caballus przewalskii) became extinct in the wild during the 1960s. Based on a successful captive breeding program, Przewalski's horses were reintroduced to the Great Gobi Part 'B' strictly protected area (SPA) in SW Mongolia in the late 1990s. The Asiatic wild ass ( Equus hemionus hemionus), Przewalski's horse, and sometimes domestic horses live sympatricly in the Gobi B SPA. Previously published data demonstrates that, as a result of their different requirements and utilization of the park's resources, their home-range size and social structure differ. Parasitological examinations in the three equid species show how the factors 'home range, social structure, and resource selection' significantly impact parasitic burden. Asiatic wild asses are potentially exposed to a higher risk of parasite re-infection due to their temporal aggregation in very large groups. This study demonstrates a highly significant greater parasite load in the Asiatic wild ass for the majority of parasites evaluated ( Dictyocaulus arnfieldi, Trichostrongylus axei, Strongyloides westeri, Parascaris equorum) compared to Przewalski's horses and domestic horses in the same habitat. Domestic horses had higher parasite loads for eggs of strongylids, eggs of anoplocephalidae, and Eimeria leuckarti. The potential risk of cross infection between sympatric living equids is high, as is the cross infection between ruminants and equids. Furthermore, this study reports for the first time the occurrence of lungworms in free-ranging Przewalski's horses. Whereas, Asiatic wild asses and Przewalski's horses seem to cope very well with the sometimes high parasite burden, Mongolian domestic horses manifested typical parasite burden symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Long-distance migrations of wildlife have been identified as important biological phenomena, but their conservation remains a major challenge. The Mongolian Gobi is one of the last refuges for the Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus) and other threatened migratory mammals. Using historic and current distribution ranges, population genetics, and telemetry data we assessed the connectivity of the wild ass population in the context of natural and anthropogenic landscape features and the existing network of protected areas. In the Mongolian Gobi mean biomass production is highly correlated with human and livestock density and seems to predict wild ass occurrence at the upper level. The current wild ass distribution range largely falls into areas below the 250gC/m2/year productivity isoline, suggesting that under the present land use more productive areas have become unavailable for wild asses. Population genetics results identified two subpopulations and delineated a genetic boundary between the Dzungarian and Transaltai Gobi for which the most likely explanation are the mountain ranges separating the two areas. Home ranges and locations of 19 radiomarked wild asses support the assumed restricting effects of more productive habitats and mountain ranges and additionally point towards a barrier effect of fences. Furthermore, telemetry data shows that in the Dzungarian and Transaltai Gobi individual wild ass rarely ventured outside of the protected areas, whereas in the southeast Gobi asses only spend a small fraction of their time within the protected area network. Conserving the continuity of the wild ass population will need a landscape level approach, also including multi-use landscapes outside of protected areas, particularly in the southeast Gobi. In the southwest Gobi, allowing for openings in the border fence to China and managing the border area as an ecological corridor would connect three large protected areas together covering over 70,000km2 of wild ass habitat. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Equus kiang Moorcroft, 1841, is an equid commonly called the kiang or Tibetan wild ass and is the only equid living on the Tibetan Plateau. It is the largest of the wild asses, with a distinct dark-brown coat on the back, and 1 of the 7 species of Equus. It is endemic to the high-elevation rangelands of China (Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai, and Gansu), India (Ladakh and Sikkim), Pakistan (Khunjerab National Park), and Nepal (Mustang). It inhabits open steppes and rolling hills sparsely vegetated with grasses and sedges. E. kiang is vulnerable to illegal poaching and competition with domestic livestock, and data are insufficient to accurately estimate its total abundance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Horses are unusual in producing protein-rich sweat for thermoregulation, a major component of which is latherin, a highly surface-active, non-glycosylated protein. The amino acid sequence of latherin, determined from cDNA analysis, is highly conserved across four geographically dispersed equid species (horse, zebra, onager, ass), and is similar to a family of proteins only found previously in the oral cavity and associated tissues of mammals. Latherin produces a significant reduction in water surface tension at low concentrations (≤1 mg ml-1), and therefore probably acts as a wetting agent to facilitate evaporative cooling through a waterproofed pelt. Neutron reflection experiments indicate that this detergent-like activity is associated with the formation of a dense protein layer, about 10 Å thick, at the air-water interface. However, biophysical characterization (circular dichroism, differential scanning calorimetry) in solution shows that latherin behaves like a typical globular protein, although with unusual intrinsic fluorescence characteristics, suggesting that significant conformational change or unfolding of the protein is required for assembly of the air-water interfacial layer. RT-PCR screening revealed latherin transcripts in horse skin and salivary gland but in no other tissues. Recombinant latherin produced in bacteria was also found to be the target of IgE antibody from horse-allergic subjects. Equids therefore may have adapted an oral/salivary mucosal protein for two purposes peculiar to their lifestyle, namely their need for rapid and efficient heat dissipation and their specialisation for masticating and processing large quantities of dry food material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Wild Ass Sanctuary, Little Rann of Kutch is a typical ecological system with saline desert climate with least floral diversity and unique faunal diversity. The area has been declared as a wildlife sanctuary for protection of free ranging population of the Indian Wild Ass ( Equus hemionus khur). The present paper explores this unique ecosystem in the light of its microbial diversity. Microorganisms were isolated from the soil samples collected from different areas of the sanctuary by enrichment isolation technique using the variables of pH and salinity. Primary characterization of soil samples was done with reference to Water Holding Capacity (WHC), pH, organic carbon, salinity and fluoride which revealed diverse and unique soil type. The isolates were further studied for morphological and biochemical heterogenecity. Due to the hyper saline and hyper alkaline environment, the investigated microflora were having dominated population including alkalophiles, halophiles and haloalkalophiles. Extremophilic isolates were further screened for extracellular enzyme in the extreme environment which suggests a possible biotechnological implication, besides the first significance in biodiversity and their role in the ecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Habitat selection, as a reflection of an animal''s need to satisfy its life requirements was studied in two indigenous ungulates, the Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus) and dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas), under conditions of extreme aridity in the Negev desert. These ungulates had significantly different spatial distributions. The relative abundance of wild asses was positively correlated with plant species richness and the percentage cover of known forage species, and negatively correlated with the incidence of earlier browsing. There was no significant relationship between plant species distribution and habitat selection by the dorcas gazelle. It is possible, however, that the scale at which foraging opportunity was evaluated, namely the plant species level, masked habitat selection by the gazelle. Interestingly, the occurrence of dorcas gazelles was positively associated with access to perennial surface water. This is an unexpected result in a species known to be independent of free water for drinking. This result indicates, that while the gazelle can survive without free water should the need arise, it preferentially utilises habitats with access to drinking water. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Equus hydruntinus inhabited Europe and the Middle East for more than 300 000 years. For a long time, palaeontological data failed to place E. hydruntinus into the equid phylogenetic tree, confronted with the fact that it shares primitive Equus characters with both zebras and asses, and derived characters with asses and hemiones. However, the study of a recently discovered skull points to a relationship with hemiones. Extraction of DNA from ancient samples from Crimea ( E. hydruntinus) and Iran ( E. cf. hydruntinus) yielded 134–288 bp of the mtDNA control region and 143 bp of the cytochrome b gene. This DNA analysis supports the proximity of E. hydruntinus and Equus hemionus suggested by skull and limb bone analyses, and rejects proximity to either Equus burchelli or the asses suggested by tooth morphology. Dental morphology may thus be of poor taxonomical value if used alone for establishing equid phylogenetic relationships. Furthermore, the small genetic distance between E. cf. hydruntinus of Iran and the classical E. hydruntinus of Crimea suggests that both samples belong to the same species. Accordingly, the geographic range of E. hydruntinus— until now believed to be restricted to Europe, Israel, and Turkey — can be extended towards East as far as Iran. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The benefits of composted yard waste applied as a mulch were demonstrated in a held study at two locations and supporting greenhouse research. Compost was applied to eroded roadside slopes of about 12° and 27° to determine the influence on soil displacement and establishment and/or enhancement of permanent roadside vegetation. Treatments consisted of compost rates of 5 cm and planted with asiastic jasmine (Trachelopermum asiaticum), 5 and 10 cm, seeded with 110 or 220 kg⋅ha-1 80:20 bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flugge): bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L.) seed mix by weight, straw erosion control mats, and bahiagrass sod. Compost treatments effectively controlled soil displacement regardless of compost rate or seeding with turfgrass at both locations. Effects on roadside vegetation and visual quality varied with location. Asiatic jasmine did not establish at either site. Compost mulch applications increased total vegetation, turfgrass density, and quality at the site with 27° slope and 4% initial soil organic matter content, but resulted in a decline in cover at the site with a 12° slope and <1% organic matter content. Compost mulch can effectively prevent soil displacement from roadside slopes, but may not promote establishment or enhancement of permanent vegetative cover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Empirical data on behavior, such as space-use patterns, are important to the success of animal reintroductions. We studied space-use patterns in a growing population of Asiatic wild ass ( Equus hemionus) reintroduced into the Ramon erosion cirque in the Negev desert, Israel. Between 1988 and 1995 we used direct observation to determine the location and association of males and females. All adult females and dominant males were individually recognized. Home ranges of dominant males overlapped little, suggesting that in this population males are territorial. After the first release of males and females into the wild, only one territory was established, and it covered most of the 20,000 ha of the cirque. After 6 years the number of male territories increased as the number of males in the population increased, and average territory size decreased. Male territories were near permanent and ephemeral water sources, but the water sources were at the peripheries of the territories and were not centers of activity. When there was only one territorial male, female home ranges were almost entirely within the territory. As male territory size decreased, so did the spatial association of females with a single male. During the breeding season, males spent more time in close association with female groups, adopting what may temporarily appear to be a harem breeding strategy. Although demographic and environmental factors pose a greater threat to small populations, our data support the hypothesis that in small, reintroduced populations of territorial, polygynous species, effective population size ( Ne ) may be dangerously small. Our data suggest that this situation may last for several years until new males are recruited into the population. Thereafter, rapid male turnover and female use of several male territories may ameliorate this problem. We found no relationship between male turnover rate and female reproductive success. The establishment of... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We consider three case studies of long-term plant population dynamics in Makhtesh Ramon erosion cirque in the central Negev desert of Israel. We show that rainfall is the major driving variable in this system, and that it creates large temporal and spatial variation in plant species diversity and vegetation community composition. This variability makes it extremely difficult to distinguish `signal' (= pattern in vegetation) from `noise' (random spatial and temporal variance). Our long-term vegetation studies in permanent plots arranged along the length of the cirque, initiated in 1990 and continuing, show that there is high spatial and temporal variance in plant species' incidences and abundances. This is particularly true of annual plant species. However, using pairs of fenced and unfenced plots arranged along the major abiotic gradient, altitude (which mirrors changes in rainfall), we were able to tease apart the effects of variance in rainfall and herbivory. We found significant negative effects of herbivory by the re-introduced Asiatic wild ass ( Equus hemionus) on plant cover and on vegetation community composition. In a study of the effects of herbivory by dorcas gazelles ( Gazella dorcas) on the lily Pancratium sickenbergeri, we found that there was little inter-annual fluctuation in lily population size in two sand dunes in Makhtesh Ramon in spite of the high percentage of lilies that is removed by the gazelles and the almost complete herbivory of flowers by these herbivores. This result indicates that the dune lily populations may be maintained by dispersal of seed from other lily populations elsewhere in Makhtesh Ramon where gazelles are rare or absent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ghor-khar is a rare subspecies of onager, or Asiatic wild ass, and its habits are little known. The only known wild population inhabits the Little Rann of Kutch Desert in Gujarat State in western India and, after its numbers fell dramatically in the 1960s, it was declared a protected species. Conservation measures, including the establishment of a Wild Ass Sanctuary in 1973, have been so successful that the most recent census, in 1983, recorded nearly 2000 individuals, compared with 362 in 1967. The authors made four visits to Gujarat to study wild asses between 1984 and 1986. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

• Mongolian domestic horses are sympatric and have contact with wild equids in the Mongolian steppe ecosystem. • Asiatic wild asses are exposed to equine influenza A strains H3N8 and H7N7 and additional influenza strains. • H7N7 has been considered to be absent from the region but is clearly not. • Asiatic wild asses may represent an influenza A reservoir for the domestic and wild equid populations of eastern Asia. The majority of influenza A virus strains are hosted in nature by avian species in the orders of Anseriformes and Charadriformes. A minority of strains have been able to cross species boundaries and establish themselves in novel non-avian hosts. Influenza viruses of horses, donkeys, and mules represent such successful events of avian to mammal influenza virus adaptation. Mongolia has over 3 million domestic horses and is home to two wild equids, the Asiatic wild ass or khulan (Equus hemionus hemionus), and Przewalski's horse (Equus ferus przewalskii). Domestic and wild equids are sympatric across most of their range in Mongolia. Epizootic influenza A virus outbreaks among Mongolian domestic horses have been frequently recorded. However, the exposure, circulation and relation to domestic horse influenza A virus outbreaks among wild equids is unknown. We evaluated serum samples of Asiatic wild asses in Mongolia for antibodies against influenza A viruses, using modified protein microarray technique. We detected antibodies against hemagglutinin (H) H1, H3, H5, H7, H8 and H10 influenza A viruses. Asiatic wild asses may represent a previously unidentified influenza A virus reservoir in an ecosystem shared with populations of domestic horses in which influenza strains circulate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Describes the role of onagers as potential pasture parasite management tools in zoological collections. Pathogenic effects of gastrointestinal parasites in equids; Results suggesting that despite the presence of infective parasitic larvae on the pasture, any ingested by the onagers either failed to establish infection, to develop or reach patency.

Reports that previous studies in ungulates indicates that dominance is the most important variable, but when competition is not a factor, age appears to take precedence over hierarchic position, according to David Saltz of the Ramon Science Center in the Negev Desert and Daniel Rubenstein of Princeton University, who study the natal sex ratios of Asiatic wild asses. Male offspring predominate in a population of Asiatic wild asses; The reason is not clear; More.

Asiatic wild asses, Equus hemionus, were driven to extinction in Israel in the early 20th century. In 1983, a herd of these animals was re-introduced to the wild in Makhtesh Ramon, a large erosion cirque inthe central Negev desert, Israel. The population has grown steadily ever since and now numbers some 100 animals. In order to determine whether the wild asses are having a significant impact on the vegetation, we have monitored the plant communities in Makhtesh Ramon since 1992, using McAuliffe's log-series survey method. Our study involves 11pairs of plots along the length of the altitudinal gradient in Makhtesh Ramon. The altitudinal gradient results in a rainfall gradient from an average of 95 mm rain per year to an average of about 40 mm peryear. Each pair of plots consists of: (I) an unfenced plot, and (2) a fenced plot that excludes wild asses but not the other large mammalian herbivore, the dorcas gazelle Gazella dorcas. The wild asses havenot had a significant impact on vegetation cover, species richness, diversity or dominance. Three plant species showed significant increases in percentage cover in fenced plots, while one species showed a significant increase in percentage cover in unfenced plots. Furthermore, eight plant species invaded fenced plots, three species invaded unfenced plots and one species disappeared from unfenced plots during the study. Using Detrended Correspondence Analysis, we found that the major differences among plots are due to position along the altitudinal gradient. The Detrended Correspondence Analyses indicated that thewild asses have had no significant effect on vegetation community structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]