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The red (Ailurus fulgens) and giant (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) pandas are mammalian carnivores convergently adapted to a bamboo feeding diet. However, whereas Ailurus forages almost entirely on younger leaves, fruits and tender trunks, Ailuropoda relies more on trunks and stems. Such difference in foraging mode is considered a strategy for resource partitioning where they are sympatric. Here, we use finite-element analysis to test for mechanical differences and similarities in skull performance between Ailurus and Ailuropoda related to diet. Feeding simulations suggest that the two panda species have similar ranges of mechanical efficiency and strain energy profiles across the dentition, reflecting their durophagous diet. However, the stress distributions and peaks in the skulls of Ailurus and Ailuropoda are remarkably different for biting at all tooth locations. Although the skull of Ailuropoda is capable of resisting higher stresses than the skull of Ailurus, the latter is able to distribute stresses more evenly throughout the skull. These differences in skull biomechanics reflect their distinct bamboo feeding preferences. Ailurus uses repetitive chewing in an extended mastication to feed on soft leaves, and Ailuropoda exhibits shorter and more discrete periods of chomp-and-swallow feeding to break down hard bamboo trunks.

Abstract Background The evolution of larger brain volumes relative to body size in Mammalia is the subject of an extensive amount of research. Early on palaeontologists were interested in the brain of cave bears, Ursus spelaeus, and described its morphology and size. However, until now, it was not possible to compare the absolute or relative brain size in a phylogenetic context due to the lack of an established phylogeny, comparative material, and phylogenetic comparative methods. In recent years, many tools for comparing traits within phylogenies were developed and the phylogenetic position of cave bears was resolved based on nuclear as well as mtDNA. Results Cave bears exhibit significantly lower encephalization compared to their contemporary relatives and intraspecific brain mass variation remained rather small. Encephalization was correlated with the combined dormancy-diet score. Body size evolution was a main driver in the degree of encephalization in cave bears as it increased in a much higher pace than brain size. In Ursus spelaeus, brain and body size increase over time albeit differently paced. This rate pattern is different in the highest encephalized bear species within the dataset, Ursus malayanus. The brain size in this species increased while body size heavily decreased compared to its ancestral stage. Conclusions Early on in the evolution of cave bears encephalization decreased making it one of the least encephalized bear species compared to extant and extinct members of Ursidae. The results give reason to suspect that as herbivorous animals, cave bears might have exhibited a physiological buffer strategy to survive the strong seasonality of their environment. Thus, brain size was probably affected by the negative trade-off with adipose tissue as well as diet. The decrease of relative brain size in the herbivorous Ursus spelaeus is the result of a considerable increase in body size possibly in combination with environmental conditions forcing them to rest during winters.

Survival, especially the youth, is critical for the reproduction of a species. Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) cubs are not well developed and are vulnerable at birth, and they have developed many survival strategy to assist with survival until adulthood, including rapid growth of their young. By analysing the changes in the daily milk intake and weight gain during the early stages of cub growth for 11 years (2004-2014) over 42 healthy giant panda cubs, we found that milk intake by the cubs increased rapidly during the first 10 days. After 10 days, the daily milk intake decreased gradually and stabilized beginning at 35 days. In addition, the cubs with lower birth weight exhibited higher daily milk intake, while those with higher birth weight consumed less milk per unit of body weight. This study explored the characteristics of daily milk intake during the early growth stage of giant panda cubs, offering insight into adaptations strategy of newborns in this species and providing valuable information for artificial rearing to improve the survival rate of captive panda cubs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In southern China, the Ailuropoda - Stegodon fauna is a very general one with a relatively stable Ailuropoda and Stegodon fossil assemblage throughout the Pleistocene epoch, and cervid remains are also significant elements of this fauna. The taxonomic study on isolated cervid tooth fossils of the Late Pleistocene Ailuropoda - Stegodon fauna is not very adequate. The numerous cervid tooth fossils recently unearthed from Yangjiawan caves and Fuyan Cave give us a possibility to address this issue. Based on morphologic, odontometric and CT scanning studies, six moschid and cervid species have been recognized, including Moschus sp., Elaphodus cephalophus , Muntiacus muntjak , M . reevesi , Rusa unicolor and Cervus nippon . The cervid faunal compositions of these two sites are basically the same, and most of the species can be distinguished from one another in tooth dimensions, except for M . muntjak and E . cephalophus ; but the entoflexus of upper premolars, the metacone ribs of upper molars, the structure of p4, and the metastylid of lower molars can be used as distinguishable characters between M . muntjak and E . cephalophus . The cingulum and the entostyle of upper molars, and the metastylid of lower molars of M . reevesi are weaker than those of M . muntjak . R. unicolor possesses tapered entostyle and thick enamel, while the enamel of C . nippon is relatively thinner and the entostyle is columned. Moschus sp. usually has a Dorcatherium fold in lower molars, which is a diagnostic character for Moschus species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reproductive monitoring for captive breeding in giant pandas is based on behavioural observation and non-invasive hormone analysis. In urine, interpretation of results requires normalisation due to an animal’s changing hydration. Correction of urinary concentrations based on creatinine is the gold standard. In this study, a largely unexplored, easy-to-perform normalisation technique, based on urinary specific gravity (USpG), was examined and compared to creatinine. To this extent, six cycles from two female pandas (SB741(1) and SB569(5)) were monitored through urine analysis for oestrogen, progesterone, ceruloplasmin and 13,14-dihydro-15-keto-PGF2a (PGFM). The Pearson’s correlation between creatinine and USpG was high (r = 0.805–0.894; p < 0.01), indicative for a similar performance of both normalisation methods. However, generally lower values were observed during pro-oestrus and primary (progesterone) rise. This could be associated with huge shifts in appetite, monitored by faecal output (kg) with an averaged > 50% decrease during oestrus and >50% increase during primary progesterone rise. In parallel, respectively highest and lowest creatinine and USpG levels, were measured, with creatinine obviously more affected as a result of linkage with muscle tissue metabolism affected by reproductive hormones. As a consequence, metabolite levels were significantly different between both corrected datasets with significantly higher oestrogen peak levels during oestrus ranging from 2.13–86.93 and 31.61–306.45 ng/mL (USpG correction) versus 2.33–31.20 and 36.36–249.05 ng/mL Cr (creatinine correction) for SB569 and SB741 respectively, and significant lower progesterone levels during primary progesterone rise ranging from 0.35–3.21 and 0.85–6.80 ng/mL (USpG correction) versus 0.52–10.31 and 2.10–272.74 ng/mL Cr (creatinine correction) for SB569 and SB741 respectively. Consequently, USpG correction rendered unbiased profiles, less subject to variation and metabolic artefacts and therefore allowed a more straightforward identification of peak oestrogen and onset of secondary progesterone rise, being potentially advantageous for future studies unravelling key giant panda reproductive events, including (delayed) implantation. The alternative application of USpG as a normalisation factor was further supported by its easy application and environmental and technical robustness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species distribution models (SDMs) are widely used for predicting species' spatial distributions. Different model setup and data input however can lead to variable model predictions. Existing studies on quantifying SDM dissimilarity primarily rely on partitioning the variability in SDM-produced community level metrics such as species richness and turnover rate which are threshold-dependent and are generated with binary range maps of multiple species. Most existing measurements of spatial dissimilarity constitute geometric comparisons, which is limited compared to a more information-theoretic application of statistical dissimilarity measures using SDM predictions as direct input without renormalization. We introduce a novel method to quantify the degree of dissimilarity and its level of significance between unscaled SDM predictions of a single species. We apply the method to giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca data as well as pairs of simulated species distributions. We utilize a pixel-based Bhattacharyya distance to quantify the degree of dissimilarity among predictions of giant panda habitat of different combinations of model types, Global Climate Models (GCMs) and Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). Comparisons are also made between pairs of simulated species with different degrees of dissimilarity in spatial distribution. To evaluate the level of significance, the observed dissimilarity measure is compared against a null distribution that captures the level of dissimilarity caused by small and random variations. Specific pairs of climate scenarios (HadGEM2-ES with HadGEM2-AO and HadGEM2-AO with MIROC5) consistently produce statistically similar predictions of giant panda habitat; the highest level of RCP tends to result in more similar predictions, suggesting a convergence of model predictions. The simulated scenarios also show that the proposed method is able to effectively differentiate a range of artificial species with varying degree of dissimilarity in their resource selection preference. Our method can also reflect the dissimilarity that cannot be quantified by traditional metrics that rely on geometric comparisons. The proposed method supplements existing studies by utilizing a novel application of statistical comparisons to measure dissimilarity between user-defined pairs of models. It provides a robust way to construct the null distribution of dissimilarity that contrasts the degree of the observed dissimilarity with the intrinsic model variability. Our study provides useful insight to facilitate building more computationally efficient and robust ensemble SDMs, and it lends a practical tool to help understand the processes that contribute to prediction variability among SDMs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a flagship species in nature conservation of the world; to protect this species, 67 nature reserves have been established in China. To evaluate the protection effect of giant panda nature reserves, we analyzed the variation of giant panda number and habitat area of 23 giant panda nature reserves of Sichuan province based on the national survey data released by State Forestry Administration and Sichuan Forestry Department. Results showed that from the third national survey to the fourth, giant panda number and habitat area of 23 giant panda nature reserves of Sichuan province failed to realize the significant increase. Furthermore, we found that the total population growth rate of 23 nature reserves in the last 12 years was lower than those of the province total of Sichuan and the national total of China, and the total habitat area of the 23 nature reserves was decreasing in the last 12 years, but the province total and national total were all increasing. We propose that giant panda protection should pay more attention to how to improve the protective effects of nature reserves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The evolution of larger brain volumes relative to body size in Mammalia is the subject of an extensive amount of research. Early on palaeontologists were interested in the brain of cave bears, Ursus spelaeus, and described its morphology and size. However, until now, it was not possible to compare the absolute or relative brain size in a phylogenetic context due to the lack of an established phylogeny, comparative material, and phylogenetic comparative methods. In recent years, many tools for comparing traits within phylogenies were developed and the phylogenetic position of cave bears was resolved based on nuclear as well as mtDNA. Results: Cave bears exhibit significantly lower encephalization compared to their contemporary relatives and intraspecific brain mass variation remained rather small. Encephalization was correlated with the combined dormancy-diet score. Body size evolution was a main driver in the degree of encephalization in cave bears as it increased in a much higher pace than brain size. In Ursus spelaeus, brain and body size increase over time albeit differently paced. This rate pattern is different in the highest encephalized bear species within the dataset, Ursus malayanus. The brain size in this species increased while body size heavily decreased compared to its ancestral stage. Conclusions: Early on in the evolution of cave bears encephalization decreased making it one of the least encephalized bear species compared to extant and extinct members of Ursidae. The results give reason to suspect that as herbivorous animals, cave bears might have exhibited a physiological buffer strategy to survive the strong seasonality of their environment. Thus, brain size was probably affected by the negative trade-off with adipose tissue as well as diet. The decrease of relative brain size in the herbivorous Ursus spelaeus is the result of a considerable increase in body size possibly in combination with environmental conditions forcing them to rest during winters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Migong Cave is an important Late Pleistocene fossil locality in the Three Gorges Area, and many mammalian fossils were excavated from this cave. The faunal characteristics of the small mammals from the Migong Cave are closest to the Oriental and the South China Region faunas, but also with some elements of the Himalaya-Hengduan Mountains Region and the Monsoon Region faunas. Most of the large mammals are typical members of the “ Ailuropoda - Stegodon ” fauna, but lack some common Late Pleistocene taxa of South China, such as Elaphas maximus , Rhinoceros sinensis , Cervus unicolor and Muntiacus . On the other hand, there are several large mammals of the Palaearctic Realm Pattern and the Monsoon Region Pattern in this locality. Through analyzing the features of the mammalian fauna and regional geomorphology, it is concluded that during the period of the Migong Cave fauna, seasonal temperature difference was obvious; the valleys were wider than the present; forests were relatively sparse, and the impact of the East Asian monsson was relatively strong. Combined with the isotope dating result, it is presumed that the age of Migong Cave is correlated to MIS 2. The unusual composition of the Migong Cave fauna challenges the past principle that the alternations of glacial period and interglacial period have no or very little influence on the mammalian fauna of Southwest China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The panda's false thumb is an iconic structure, described as one of the most shocking cases of anatomical convergence, and has been studied in many essays about evolution. However, in a recent paper in which we evaluated this feature within the Carnivora, we concluded that the developed radial sesamoid could be taken as a plesiomorphic character for at least the Arctoidea, rather than an anatomical convergence of the pandas (both red and giant). Following this argument, in this research we describe the action of a radial sesamoid as a real false thumb for the first time outside the mammalian carnivorans. The cricetid Sigmodon peruanus shows a very similar radial sesamoid compared to that of the giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca) but somehow relatively even more developed, compared to the other bones of the manus than in the latter, showing that the use of this structure as a opposable pincer is much more expanded in mammals than thought previously. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Telemetry studies that track animals through space and time can lead to advances in scientific understanding that are vital in conservation efforts. For example, telemetry studies of the giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca) have shed light on many aspects of panda biology, but small sample sizes in each separate study make it difficult to draw broad conclusions. To overcome this problem we conducted the first synthesis of all 5 panda telemetry studies conducted to date. Using these data we investigated patterns in 6 main topics: home range, space-use interactions, core areas, movement patterns, seasonal migration and natal dispersal. We found that panda home range sizes do not vary between 2 main mountain ranges (Qionglai and Qinling), as was previously believed. Our results also suggest that female pandas increase their movement in the mating season: a behavior typically attributed only to males. We found and summarized telemetry and genetic evidence for female natal dispersal in the giant panda. Our synthesis highlights the need for additional research relating panda behavior to human disturbance factors, and can aid future studies on giant pandas as well as other species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mammal remains have been collected during surveys between December, 2011 and April, 2013, in a cave in the Chaiyaphum Province, Northeastern Thailand, by a team from Mahasarakham University and the Natural History Museum of the National Science Museum of Thailand. The Tham Prakai Phet (the cave of glittering diamonds) is a long karstic cavity formed in a Permian dolomitic limestone and already known to contain Pleistocene mammals. In the 1990s, some fossil teeth provided by a monk were identified as Crocuta crocuta ultima , Rhinoceros sondaicus , Sus cf. barbatus , Muntiacus muntjak , Axis porcinus , Cervidae indet., Bos sauveli , and Naemorhedus sumatraensis . The collection studied in this work contains newly discovered taxa including: Pongo sp., Macaca sp., Ailuropoda melanoleuca , Panthera cf. pardus , Ursus thibetanus , Bos javanicus , Bos sp., Bubalus sp., Naemorhedus sp., Sus scrofa, Rusa unicolor , and Hystrix cf. indica . The new data reveal a considerably more diverse Pleistocene faunal assemblage than previously documented. The age of the fauna is Pleistocene, probably not older than the late Middle Pleistocene. Gnaw marks on some of the remains suggest that the assemblage was possibly at least partly accumulated by rodents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cryptosporidium spp. have been extensively reported to cause significant diarrheal disease in humans and domestic animals. On the contrary, little information is available on the prevalence and characterization of Cryptosporidium in wild animals in China, especially in giant pandas. The aim of the present study was to detect Cryptosporidium infections and identify Cryptosporidium species at the molecular level in both captive and wild giant pandas in Sichuan province, China. Findings: Using a PCR approach, we amplified and sequenced the 18S rRNA gene from 322 giant pandas fecal samples (122 from 122 captive individuals and 200 collected from four habitats) in Sichuan province, China. The Cryptosporidium species/genotypes were identified via a BLAST comparison against published Cryptosporidium sequences available in GenBank followed by phylogenetic analysis. The results revealed that both captive and wild giant pandas were infected with a single Cryptosporidium species, C. andersoni, at a prevalence of 15.6 % (19/122) and 0.5 % (1/200) in captive and wild giant pandas, respectively. Conclusions: The present study revealed the existence of C. andersoni in both captive and wild giant panda fecal samples for the first time, and also provided useful fundamental data for further research on the molecular epidemiology and control of Cryptosporidium infection in giant pandas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies on animal space use can reveal insights into how animals interact with one another and their environment. Research on the space use patterns of the endangered giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in China has nevertheless lagged behind that of many other species, as a government moratorium prevented telemetry data collection on pandas from 1995 to 2006. We studied 5 giant pandas using GPS telemetry and estimated home ranges, core areas, and space use using model-based approaches. Home range 95% area was 6 km2 for the single male studied and averaged 4.4 ± 1.2 (± SD) km2 for the 4 females. Pandas occupied several small core areas that they revisited after time lags of up to several months. Pandas also displayed significant space use interactions, especially among the male and 2 different females across several weeks during a fall season, a time of year not previously thought to involve extensive inter-panda interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca David, 1869) is an iconic species for global conservation, yet field research has only recently advanced to the point where adaptive management is possible. Here, we review recent developments in giant panda conservation science and propose a strategic plan for moving panda conservation forward. Because of scientific, funding, political, and logistical hurdles, few endangered species management programs have embraced adaptive management, wherein management decisions are shaped iteratively by targeted scientific research. Specific threats, such as habitat destruction, anthropogenic disturbance and fragmented nonviable populations, need to be addressed simultaneously by researchers, managers and policy-makers working in concert to understand and overcome these obstacles to species recovery. With the backing of the Chinese Government and the conservation community, the giant panda can become a high-profile test species for this much touted, but rarely implemented, approach to conservation management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we used remotely sensed data, GIS modeling, and statistical methods to evaluate the damage caused by the Wenchuan Earthquake (May 12, 2008) to the giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca) habitat in the World Nature Heritage Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuary (WHSGPS) in China. A landscape ecological analysis found increases of landscape heterogeneity, complexity, and fragmentation in the giant panda habitat after the earthquake. A terrain analysis found that slope and elevation are directly associated with the distribution of the damaged areas. As slope and elevation increase, the size of the damaged area keeps increase until to a peak, and then starts to drop. The total area of the damaged vegetation in our study area is 114.26 km, accounting for 3.78% of the study area; 30.46% of that 114.26 km is located in the Core Zone of WHSGPS. There are 18.57km of the damaged vegetation located in the identified suitable giant panda habitat, accounting for 1.75% of the total area of suitable giant panda habitats in the study area. Based on these findings, we conclude that the Wenchuan Earthquake does not have significant impact on the WHSGPS as a whole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olfactory communication occurs in carnivores and many scent-mark with anal gland secretions (AGS), which contain a variety of information including sex-related cues. Currently, there is disagreement about whether bear species, other than the giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca, possess anal glands or anal sacs. We documented anal sacs in brown bears Ursus arctos and analyzed AGS from 17 free-ranging, sexually mature individuals using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. We hypothesized that brown bear AGS codes for sex, as it does in giant pandas, and predicted that AGS shows sex differences in gas chromatogram (GC) profiles, number of compounds, the digital and analog coding of chemical compounds, and color. We found 90 different compounds. Our results support the predictions that male and female AGS differs in GC, analog coding and possibly color. However, we found no significant difference between sexes in number of detected compounds or in the digital coding. Our results confirm that brown bears possess anal sacs, that secretions likely relay information about sex, and suggest other chemical information critical to the bears' social system is encoded in the AGS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, landmark-based methods of geometric morphometrics are used for investigating the main aspects of cranial shape transformation in the evolution of the giant panda, Ailuropoda melanoleuca. Specifically, we explore if the highly derived cranial adaptations for bamboo feeding of the living panda were developed early in the panda's lineage. Results obtained show that the overall cranial morphologies of the oldest known panda, the 'pygmy' Ailuropoda microta, and the late Pleistocene Ailuropoda baconi are both very similar to that of their closest living relative, A. melanoleuca, which agrees with a previous proposal based on qualitative criteria. However, we also describe several differences between the crania of A. microta, A. baconi, and A. melanoleuca, including the development of the postorbital process, the orientation of the occipital region, and the expansion of the braincase. As a result, the cranial morphology of A. microta shows a less specialized morphology toward a fibrous and durophagous diet compared to the giant panda. These results are confirmed by a comparative analysis of the dimensions of the upper teeth in bears, which has revealed differences in relative tooth size between A. microta and A. melanoleuca, most probably as a result of mosaic evolution. Therefore, we conclude that cranial shape did not remain essentially uniform in the Ailuropoda lineage, as previously thought, but underwent a number of changes during more than 2 Myr. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca is a critically endangered species endemic to China. In order to carry out effective genetic management for the giant panda population, sufficient and reliable polymorphic genetic markers are required to provide essential information on the genetic diversity survey of this species. Seven new tetranucleotide microsatellite loci were isolated and characterized in this study and presented here as a tool for evaluating the genetic variation of giant pandas in the world's two largest captive populations (Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Sichuan Province and the China Research and Conservation Center for the Giant Panda in Wolong, Sichuan Province). A total of 45 alleles were identified from these seven new microsatellite loci on the basis of 48 giant panda individuals, including 19 private alleles (six from the Chengdu population, 13 from the Wolong population) and 26 shared alleles. The average number of alleles, the average allelic richness the and mean observed heterozygosity were 4.6, 4.367 and 0.649, respectively in the Chengdu population and 5.6, 5.697 and 0.675 in the Wolong population, suggesting that the Chengdu population has a much lower allelic diversity than the Wolong population. Thus, we proposed a better strategy for the captive breeding of giant pandas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) EIF1 is a universally conserved translation factor that is involved in translation initiation site selection. The cDNA and the genomic sequences of EIF1 were cloned successfully from the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and the black bear (Ursus thibetanus mupinensis) using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technology and touchdown-polymerase chain reaction, respectively. The cDNAs of the EIF1 cloned from the giant panda and the black bear are 418 bp in size, containing an open reading frame (ORF) of 342 bp encoding 113 amino acids. The length of the genomic sequence of the giant panda is 1909 bp, which contains four exons and three introns. The length of the genomic sequence of the black bear is 1897 bp, which also contains four exons and three introns. Sequence alignment indicates a high degree of homology to those of Homo sapiens, Mus musculus, Rattus norvegicus, and Bos Taurus at both amino acid and DNA levels. Topology prediction shows there are one N-glycosylation site, two Casein kinase II phosphorylation sites, and a Amidation site in the EIF1 protein of the giant panda and black bear. In addition, there is a protein kinase C phosphorylation site in EIF1 of the giant panda. The giant panda and the black bear EIF1 genes were overexpressed in E. coli BL21. The results indicated that the both EIF1 fusion proteins with the N-terminally His-tagged form gave rise to the accumulation of two expected 19 kDa polypeptide. The expression products obtained could be used to purify the proteins and study their function further. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetic variations in the giant panda populations in Wanglang and Baoxing Nature Reserves were evaluated in this study. Panda feces were collected from these two reserves and DNA samples extracted from the feces were genotyped at 13 microsatellite loci. A total of 130 alleles were identified from the 13 microsatellite loci in 63 giant pandas, including 35 private alleles in Wanglang, 53 private alleles in Baoxing, and 42 alleles shared between the two populations. The mean observed heterozygosity, average number of alleles, average number of allelic richness, and average polymorphism information content were 0.488, 6.2, 3.302, and 0.612, respectively for the Wanglang population and 0.553, 7.6, 4.050, and 0.747 for the Baoxing population. A moderate degree of genetic differentiation (Fst = 0.26) and no gene flow were found between these two populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historically, the assessment of nonhuman animal personality has included a variety of methods—from direct behavioral observations in a variety of test situations to assessments provided by animal caretakers or trainers. Careful observation of how animals in zoos interact with novel enrichment may provide reliable insight into their personality. This study sought to describe a process for evaluating whether different methods of assessing personality result in similar conclusions. The study exposed 4 giant pandas at the Smithsonian National Zoological Park and Zoo Atlanta to 10 novel enrichment items and recorded their behavior. Keepers also rated each panda on 23 behavioral characteristics on a survey. The study obtained individual behavior profiles for each panda. Significant differences across individuals in both the novel enrichment trials and keeper surveys formed the basis for the profiles. These methods also provided some insight into differences between the sexes that—based on the natural history of giant pandas—are qualitatively similar to what would be expected. The study found some consistency between assessment methods. However, there is a need for further study to validate these measures in a larger sample of giant pandas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although dispersal in the giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca) is a demographic mechanism which can potentially counteract the negative effect of habitat fragmentation, little is known about dispersal in this species because of difficulties in observing individuals. Using data from faecal microsatellite genotyping, we compared the spatial distribution of giant pandas in two populations and the proximity of relatives in one key population to infer their dispersal pattern. We conclude that giant pandas exhibit female-biased dispersal because: (i) vAIc (variance of assignment index) for females was significantly larger than for males, suggesting that females comprise both ‘local’ and ‘foreign’ genotypes; (ii) the average spatial distance of related female dyads was significantly larger than that of males; (iii) larger r (relatedness), FST (genetic variance among populations) and mAIc (mean of assignment index) values were found in males using the software FSTAT, although the differences were not significant; (iv) males set up territories neighbouring to their birth place; (v) significant population structure using microsatellites with a concomitant lack of mitochondrial structure was found in a previous study, possibly indicating more extensive female dispersal; and (vi) female-biased dispersal was strongly supported by evidence from concomitant ecological studies. Considering previous ecological data and life-history characteristics of the giant panda, female-biased dispersal is most likely to be due to competition for birth dens among females, inbreeding avoidance and enhancing inclusive fitness among related males. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fossils of the giant panda Alluropoda (Order Carnivora, Family Ursidae) are largely isolated teeth, mandibles. and a few rare skulls, known from the late Pliocene to late Pleistocene in China and Southeast Asia. Much of this material represents a Pleistocene chronospecies, Ailuropoda baconi, an animal larger than the living giant panda, Ailuropoda melanoleuca. The earliest certain record of Ailuropoda is the late Pliocene chronospecies, Ailuropoda microta, smaller than either A. baconi or A. melanoleuca. and previously known only from teeth and a few mandibles from karst caves in south China. Here, we report the discovery of the first skull of A. microta, establishing its cranial anatomy and demonstrating that the specialized cranial and dental adaptations of Ailuropoda for durophagous feeding behavior centered on bamboo were already evident in this late Pliocene species. The skull from Jinyin cave (Guangxi) and dental remains from other karst localities in southeastern China show that Alluropoda microta occupied south China from ≈2 to 2.4 Myr ago after a marked global climatic deterioration. Dental and basicranial anatomy indicate a less specialized morphology early in the history of the lineage and support derivation of the giant panda from the Miocene Asian ursid Allurarctos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The natal den is important to reproduction success of the giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca. In this study, we tested the differences between natal dens of the giant panda and reference caves by three statistical methods, and derived the main factors influencing den selection by the giant pandas by principal component analysis (PCA). The results of difference tests indicated that nine variables, including visibility at a height of 1 m, rain proofing, aspect, position, gradient, canopy cover, coverage of bamboo, distance to water and human disturbance were significantly different. The result of PCA indicated that canopy cover was the most important factor in natal den selection by giant pandas. Distance to water, coverage of bamboo and degree of rain proofing were also important factors determining den selection by the giant pandas in Foping Nature Reserve. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Both the giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and the red panda ( Ailurus fulgens) possess a ‘false-thumb’, actually an enlarged radial sesamoid bone, which contributes to the gripping action of the hand. These species are not closely related, however, as one is an ursid and the other an ailurid, so the fact that they share this adaptation implies a remarkable convergence. We studied the functional anatomy of this structure in the red panda, comparing it with existing descriptions of the grasping mechanism in both pandas. Previous interpretations of the radial sesamoid in Ailurus as a rod-like structure without direct articulation to the wrist bones are inaccurate. There are various important differences between the red panda and the giant panda. In the former, the lesser development of the radial sesamoid, its connection with the flexor retinaculum, the presence of an insertion of the muscle abductor pollicis longus in the first metacarpal, which enhances its supinatory action, and the presence of a muscle flexor brevis digitorum manus point to thin-branch climbing features serving as an exaptation to the more recent role of the red panda hand in the manipulation of bamboo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca, endemic to China, is perhaps the most powerful and wellknown global icon of biodiversity conservation, having been the symbol of WWF since it was formed in 1961. It is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Although there have been conservation successes for the giant panda in the last 2 decades, with 59 reserves established for the species, many conservation challenges remain and the species' status on the IUCN Red List has not changed since 1990, when it was first categorized as Endangered. Habitat fragmentation, synchronous bamboo flowering and die-off, and mismanagement of reserves are continuing challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]