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The four largest Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden) have a population encompassing a little over 22 million people. Although each country has its own distinctive language, a large part of the citizens of each country has a fairly good understanding of each other’s languages.

Functional comprehensibility of legislative texts: Experiments with a Swedish Act of Parliament.

Proceedings from a conference held in January 1975 on systems development with emphasis on the role and involvement of the various groups of individuals who are affected by the installation of new systems. Participants in the conference were labour union representatives, people employed in industrial and administrative management at various levels, system developers, and students and researchers in computer science, economics and business administration.2 volumes. 770 pp. Scandinavian languages

We describe a set of modules that together make up a grapheme-to-phoneme coversion system for Dutch. Modules include a syllabification program, a fast morphological parser, a lexical database, a phonological knowledge base, transliteration rules, and phonological rules. Knowledge and procedures were implemented object-orientedly. We contrast GRAFON to recent pattern recognition and rule-compiler approaches and try to show that the first fails for languages with concatenative compounding (like Dutch, German, and Scandinavian languages) while the second lacks the flexibility to model different phonological theories. It is claimed that syllables (and not graphemes/phonemes or morphemes) should be central units in a rule-based phonemisation algorithm. Furthermore, the architecture of GRAFON and its user interface make it ideally suited as a rule-testing tool for phonologists.

0.0 The aim of this paper is threefold: (i) to present data from Scandinavian languages that any general theory of island constraints must account for; (ii) to describe these data in the framework being developed in Gazdar (this volume), Sag (this volume), Gazdar, Pullum and Sag (1980), and to show that while a straightforward extension of the framework to cover the Scandinavian data is possible, it leads to an increase in generative capacity of the theory so that it no longer provides grammars only for context-free languages; and (iii) to sketch a theory of island constraints that transfers some of the burden of explanation from the syntax to processing mechanisms on the one hand and to discourse organization on the other.

The official language of the Kingdom of the Netherlands is known to us as Dutch. Dutch belongs, along with German, the Scandinavian languages and English, to the so-called ‘Germanic’ group of languages. We can see plainly the family relationship of Dutch to English when we compare words like which, although they are pronounced differently, show their common origin. We can find many words like this in the Dutch vocabulary, and even more words like which have become somewhat disguised through sound changes and differing spellings, and are not always easily recognizable. The close relationship of a large number of words is still more obscured by the changes of time, e.g. to an extent that only a trained eye can identify them. Open image in new window Open image in new window Open image in new window

Analog bulletin boards are omnipresent in Swedish urban areas, yet little systematic knowledge about this communication medium exists. In the shadow of the rapid emergence of digital media the anal ...

There has been considerable debate about when Norn, the Scandinavian language formerly spoken in Orkney and Shetland, died as a community language in the islands. Arguments thus far have focused primarily on second-hand commentary from travel and census reports, sparking disputes about the credibility of these sources. Linguistic evidence, although very little survives, is seldom used systematically in the debate about when Norn died. I argue that a list of thirty Norn words collected in 1774 can tell us about the state of the language at the time, and can thus be used as evidence in this debate.

Possibly because very few teachers in Britain are fluent readers of Scandinavian languages while, on the other hand, the majority in the academic professions in Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland and Iceland speak and read – not infrequently write – English, the flow of thinking about music education and its developments often appears to be one way.Yet although it may be true to say that, over the last twenty years or so, music educators in the Nordic countries have drawn quite a lot of inspiration from beyond their own borders (Finland and Sweden tending to look towards Hungary; Norway, Iceland and Denmark perhaps turning more often to Britain and the United States), it would be a serious error to imagine that they have no significant ideas of their own! Indeed, an enormous amount has been achieved in these countries from which the rest of us can usefully learn.

The Interest for the Brontes in the Scandinavian countries can not, of course, be compared with the place they have in the British people's hearts. Nevertheless, at least Wuthering Heights and Jane Eyre are translated into the different Scandinavian languages, and both are among the books most asked for in the public libraries. Some people with higher education have at least a vague idea about the Brontes having had some tragic fate or other; a few know about their lives in outline; for the rest of the public they are no more than a couple of authors' names among thousands of others, or are completely unknown.

Two competing theories exist about the Proto-Germanic syllabication of VCiV and similar sequences: one proposes that the division was V.CiV, the other, VC.iV. Furthermore, three major phonological developments in Germanic groups have never received a satisfactory explanation: consonant gemination in West Germanic, vowel lengthening (with differential constraints) in North Germanic, and glide strengthening in Gothic. This paper proposes a uniform solution for all these problems, based on independently established principles of syllabic phonology: a preference (at least in the Germanic languages) for stressed syllables that have two morae (Prokosch 1939), and a universal preference for syllable onsets that are at least as strong as the preceding syllable offset (Hooper 1976). We provide various kinds of evidence for a Proto-Germanic syllabication VC.iV which is in accordance with Prokosch's principle, but not with Hooper's; and we then explain subsequent developments as different ways of rebalancing the syllable structure to accord with both Prokosch's and Hooper's principles: VC.iV > VC.CiV in West Germanic; VC.iV > V.CIV in North Germanic; and VC.iV > VC.jV in Gothic.*

S OF FOLKLORE STUDIES THE AMERICAN FOLKLORE SOCIETY announces the publication of its new quarterly, ABSTRACTS OF FOLKLORE STUDIES. This journal is designed to provide scholars with brief, factual summaries of articles relevant to the folklore discipline. The scope of AFS is wide; it will deal with folklore in its broadest sense-tale, song, proverb, arts and crafts, ethnology, literature. It is edited by Donald M. Winkelman and Ray B. Browne, both of the English Department of Purdue University. The editors welcome both subscriptions and contributions to the quarterly. They would especially like to have contributors with a background in folklore and in Japanese or other Oriental languages, in Arabic, in Russian or other Slavic tongues, or in any of the several Scandinavian languages. The subscription rate is $3.00 per year. 31 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.162 on Thu, 11 Aug 2016 06:01:56 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

FOR more than three hundred years before Columbus' rediscovery of America, the merchants of North Germany residing abroad, especially those from the North and Baltic seacoasts, had been associated in a league for collective security and the pursuit of their occupation as aliens in north European towns outside the immediate jurisdiction of the Germanic Roman Empire.' As the safety and prosperity of the merchants depended on maintaining mutually shared rights to trade and to the protection of a more or less extraterritorial status, a strong consciousness of forming a distinct society had identified members of the Hansa-i.e., men of the trade guilds specially chartered.2 Early necessity of organization for the common welfare had produced the federation of their native towns, which from the middle of the fourteenth century began customarily to consult together on matters of common interest and for this purpose annually to send delegates to Liubeck, leading commercial town on the western Baltic.3 The union thus formed, though as loose in constitutional structure as the confederation of North American states before 1789, tended for nearly two centuries to be pre-eminent in the economic and political sense over the North Germanic and Baltic countries, through control of surrounding waters and grasp of economic necessities of the areas serviced by its ships. After the emergence of nationalism in the later fifteenth century, the contemporaneous rise of local industry, and the opening of sea routes to Asia and the Americas-with the resultant influx of commodities in numbers great enough to diminish relatively the scope of Baltic traderecession of the Hanseatic League began, soon to be complicated by unsolved internal difficulties, particularly the withdrawal from the union, and commercial competition of important Netherland communities. * The author is associate professor of history in the Colorado Agricultural and Mechanical College, Fort Collins. I Walther Stein, "Zur Entstehung und, Bedeutung der Deutschen Hanse," Hansische Geschichtsblitter, XVII (I9II), 265-363. 2 For evolution of the term "Hansa" see David K. Blork, "Three Hansa Towns and Archives -Bruges, Liibeck, Tallinn," Pacific Historical Review, IX (September, 1940), 297-306, esp. 298. 3 Ibid., IX, 298-99; Stein, in Hans. Gesch., XVII, 275-76; Ernst Daenell, Die Blitezeit der deutschen Hanse: Hansische Geschichte von der zweiten Hklfte des XIV bis zvm Letzten Viertel des XV lahrhunderts (2 vols.; Berlin, i906), II, 309. 279

The protracted negotiations concerning the return of medieval manuscripts to Iceland from Danish collections is the classic restitution case in Scandinavia. The case is dealt with in three contributions mirroring both the Icelandic and Danish views on the controversy. Vesteinn Ólason in his paper ’The homecoming of the manuscripts in a scholarly and ideological perspective’ gives a brief overview of the number of manuscripts, their history and the considerations that finally settled the issue. The manuscripts dating from the period 1200–1500 are the oldest written sources of Norse language and literature. As early as the 17th century they began to attract the attention and curiosity of scholars who were studying the development and differentiation of old Norse into the various Scandinavian languages, medieval Scandinavian history and literary traditions. The manuscripts were assembled by ardent collectors and taken to Denmark and Sweden.

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In his Notes on Vedic noun-inflexion 31 (1942), F. B. J. Kuiper has recognized in Vedic iyu, Av. ayu 'life, age' a Proto-Indo-European *A6yu parallel in structure to the *d6ru, *g6nu, and *s6nu of Skt. daru, Gk. doru 'wood', Skt. janu, Gk. gonu 'knee', and Skt. sanu 'back'. The initial laryngeal has disappeared without trace in Indo-Iranian, even in the oblique cases (e.g. Avestan gen. yao? from *Ayews), but is indicated by cognates in European languages: Gk. aion 'life, age', aiwei, aiEn, aies, etc. 'always', and Lat. aevus, aevum 'age, eternity', all pointing to *Aeyw-, with a vocalism comparable to that of Welsh derw 'oaks' and Ru. d6revo 'tree'. Indecisive in this respect are Germanic cognates such as Gothic aiws* 'age, eternity' and ajukdujs* 'eternity'. Celtic forms such as W oes 'age, lifetime', oed 'age' and OIr. ais 'age; people' seem to lack *w and are not certainly cognate with the family of Skt. dyu and Lat. aevum (cf. Pedersen, VKG 1.176, Walde-Pokorny 1.7, Pokorny IEW 11, and Vendryes, Lexique gtymologique de l'irlandais ancien, A 21). None of the etymologies so far proposed for Gk. ou 'not' merit serious consideration (cf. Boisacq s.v. and Schwyzer-Debrunner, Griech. Gram. 2.591 fn. 5). Clear is only that the prevocalic form ouk is elided from ouki, which contains the neuter indefinite pronoun *kwid 'anything, at all' (Skt. cid).l Ouki, which in classic Greek is limited to the Homeric formula e kal ouki and a couple of other occurrences in the Iliad (cf. Monro, Homeric grammar2 322), must once have occurred freely as a synonym of ou; this is shown both by the mechanical alternation of ouk and ou, and by the apparent free interchange of Myc. o-u-kite-mi KN V 280.5 and o-u-te-mi ibid. 11, 12, 13, 14. Whatever -te-mi may be, o-uand o-u-kiare almost certainly ou and ouki 'not'. I suggest that Gk. ou is cognate with Skt. 6yu and Av. ayu and represents the Greek outcome of PIE *A6yu 'life, lifetime, age, eternity'. The phonetics cause no difficulty; *y is regularly lost between vowels, and the absence of an uncontracted *ou is no more surprising than the absence of an uncontracted *es 'thou art' corresponding to Skt. dsi. The semantic development I envisage is the same as that of the North Germanic negative OIc. eigi, ONorw. eighi, OSw. eghi, ei, etc. 'not'. As is well known,2 eigi etc. consists of ei, ey 'ever, always' (: Go. aiw, OE a, OHG eo, io) plus an enclitic -gi which once meant 'any, at all' (cf. hverrgi 'each one, whoever', hvargi 'everywhere, wherever'; -gi may well go back to the stem *kwi. of Gk. -ki and Skt. cid), but which in eigi simply serves to distinguish the word from

J. W. Marchand, in an article which bears almost the same title as the present note and which was published in Language 33.346-54 (1957), reexamines the question posed in that title, and reaches the conclusion that the reflexes of PIE /i/ and /e/ did not contrast in identical environments, i.e. that these two PIE phonemes had merged in Proto-Germanic, and that, accordingly, the system of PGmc. short syllabics exhibited only a three-way contrast: one front vowel, one back vowel, one low vowel. He presents arguments which are intended to establish the validity of two assumed sound-changes for Pre-Germanic: PIE /i/ > /e/ before /a/ sounds, and PIE /e/ > /i/ before /u/, and he declares that if we deny the occurrence of these sound changes, we must accept the phones [i] and [e] as members of different phonemes. My contention here is simply that the occurrence of the alleged changes for Proto-Germanic (or Pre-Germanic) has not been proved, and that Proto-Germanic must therefore be assumed to have exhibited, as asserted by Twaddell and Kurylowicz, an asymmetrical structure in its system of short syllabics. I shall try to outline the essence of the problem in a brief paragraph. All comparativists assume for PIE a contrast symbolized by /e/ vs. /i/. The question is this: do the reflexes of PIE /e/ and /i/ contrast, systematically, in any environment, in any Germanic language? If they do, then these PIE phonemes did not wholly merge in Proto-Germanic. This is what I undertake to show. It is of course accepted by all that /e/ became /i/ before nasal plus consonant and before obstruent plus /i, y/. And strict reconstruction allows us to posit, e.g. for the Proto-Germanic word for 'man', only */wera-/, where IE had */wiro-/. That is, certain realignments had occurred by the period of Proto-Germanic; in certain environments /e/ had merged with /i/ and in others /i/ had merged with /e/. There is a methodological fault in Marchand's paper, a serious one: the article sets out to deal with 'Germanic short *i and *e', and throughout it speaks in terms of 'PGmc.' features. But its examples are all taken from West Germanic or Gothic. There is an almost total neglect of the evidence from North Germanic. In what follows I wish to consider data bearing on this problem taken from the Old Icelandic literary language of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. I will examine first some of the Icelandic reflexes, in initial syllables, of PIE /e/, namely those in which PIE /e/ occurred in environments other than those mentioned above, i.e. before -nCand -Ci(y)-. We find two such reflexes: (1) PIE /e/ is Icel. /e/: bera < PIE *bher-, eta < PIE *ed-, ek < PIE *eg-; and (2) /ja/ , /jQ/: jar;YarjQr;Y, cf. MIrish ert, Gk. era; fjQrr 'a tree', OHG fereh, Lat. quercus; bjQrn 'bear', cf. Lith. beras 'brown'; bjQrk 'birch', cf. Lith. bgrzas, id. The precise conditions for the divergent treatment are disputed, but this is irrelevant for my purpose. What is relevant is the observation that wherever Icelandic has -ja(or jQ, which is found where Proto-Norse had -uin a following syllable) in words of

List of illustrations Acknowledgements Preface List of abbreviations 1. The writings of Dorothy Whitelock 2. The letters of Pope Boniface V and the mission of Paulinus to Northumbria Peter Hunter Blair 3. Bede's text of Libellus Responsionum of Gregory the Great to Augustine of Canterbury Paul Meyvaert 4. A background to St Boniface's mission J. M. Wallace-Hadrill 5. Evidence for contacts between the churches of the Irish and English from the Synod of Whitby to the Viking Age Kathleen Hughes 6. The development of military obligations in eighth- and ninth-century England Nicholas Brooks 7. 'lfric and the Old English version of the Ely privilege John Pope 8. Towns in late Anglo-Saxon England: the evidence and some possible lines of enquiry Henry Loyn 9. Regnum and sacerdotium in the early eleventh century Dorothy Bethurum Loomis 10. Scandinavian settlement in the territory of the Five Boroughs: the place-name evidence in part III, the Grimston-hybrids Kenneth Cameron 11. How long did the Scandinavian language survive in England R. I. Page 12. Personal names on the coinage of Edgar Olof von Feilitzen and Christopher Blunt 13. The narrative mode of The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle before the Conquest Cecily Clark 14. The classic additions in the Old English Orosius Janet Bately 15. The orientation system in the Old English Orosius Rene Derolez 16. The ethic of war in old English J. E. Cross 17. The use in Beowulf of earlier heroic verse Alistair Campbell 18. Cynewulf's image of the Ascension Peter Clemoes 19. The 'Winchester School' before St 'thelwold Francis Wormald 20. The handwriting of Archbishop Wulfstan Neil Ker 21. The nummular brooch from Sulgrave Michael Dolley 22. Repton reconsidered: a study in structural criticism H. M. Taylor 23. Archaeology and the beginnings of English society Martin Biddle Index.