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Humans affect ecosystems by changing species compositions, landscape and climate. This thesis aims to increase our understanding of anthropogenic effects on mesopredator abundance due to changes in apex predator status, landscape and climate. I show that in Eurasia the abundance of a mesopredator, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), is limited top-down by the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and bottom-up by winter severity. However, where lynx has been eradicated, fox abundance is instead related to bottom-factors such as cropland (paper I, II). Fox abundance was highest when croplands constituted 25% of the landscape (paper II). I also project red fox abundance in Sweden over the past 200 years and in future scenarios in relation to lynx density, land use and climate change. The projected fox abundance was highest in 1920, when lynx was eradicated and the proportion of cropland was 22%. In 2010, when lynx had recolonised, the projected fox abundance was lower than in 1920, but higher than in 1830. Future scenarios indicated that lynx abundance must increase in respond to climate change to keep fox at the same density as today. The results suggest a mesopredator release when lynx was eradicated, boosted by land use and climate change, and that changes in bottom-up factors can modify the relative strength of top-down factors (paper IV). From 1846-1922, lynx, wolverine (Gulo gulo) and grey wolf (Canis lupus) declined in Scandinavia due to persecution; however I show that the change in wolverine abundance was positively related to the changes in lynx and wolf abundance. This indicates that wolverine is subsidized by carrions from lynx and wolf kills rather than limited top-down by them (paper III). This thesis illustrates how mesopredator abundance is determined by a combination of top-down and bottom-up processes, and how anthropogenic impacts not only can change the structures of predator guilds, but also may modify top-down processes through changes in bottom-up factors. At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Submitted. Paper 3: Submitted. Paper 4: Manuscript.

The aim of my study was to evaluate breeding of grey wolves (Canis lupus) in human care in the Czech Republic based on the data from the Union of Czech and Slovak Zoos (UCSZOO) Yearbooks and the data from individual zoos. After processing the data from the yearbooks since 1973 till 2012, I visited zoos´ and evaluated e. g. size of wolf-run, diet composition, chance to create a pack. The following subspecies C. l. lupus, C. l. pambasileus, C. l. occidentalis, C. l. arctos, C. l. signatus and individuals without determining the subspecies have (or were) bred in the Czech Republic. The first wolf reared in captivity in the Czech Republic was female of C. l. lupus (named Lota) in the Prague Zoo alredy in 1931. Nowadays nine zoos in the Czech Republic (two of them are not members of the UCSZOO) and three Slovak zoos (all members of the UCSZOO) breed wolves in captivity. Number of grey wolves that are bred in captivity is still growing. There were 102 grey wolves (87 within UCSZOO, 7 out of UCSZOO and 8 in private breedings) bred at the beginning of 2013. Number of grey wolves bred in evaluated zoos represented 12% and 7% of wolves bred in human care in Europa and in the world, respectively. Most of the individuals (48) were kept in the Olomouc Zoo. This zoo is simultaneously the only one which bred three subspecies of grey wolf. The most common subspecies of grey wolf kept in captivity is C. l. arctos, in the Czech Republic. Only the Olomouc Zoo and the Brno Zoo have bred this species in the Czech and Slovak Republic since 2006. There were recorded 93 grey wolves born in the UCSZOO member zoos with 74 % rearing success during the entire evaluated period (1984 2012).

Genomic resources developed for domesticated species provide powerful tools for studying the evolutionary history of their wild relatives. Here we use 61K single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) evenly spaced throughout the canine nuclear genome to analyse evolutionary relationships among the three largest European populations of grey wolves in comparison with other populations worldwide, and investigate genome-wide effects of demographic bottlenecks and signatures of selection. European wolves have a discontinuous range, with large and connected populations in Eastern Europe and relatively smaller, isolated populations in Italy and the Iberian Peninsula. Our results suggest a continuous decline in wolf numbers in Europe since the Late Pleistocene, and long-term isolation and bottlenecks in the Italian and Iberian populations following their divergence from the Eastern European population. The Italian and Iberian populations have low genetic variability and high linkage disequilibrium, but relatively few autozygous segments across the genome. This last characteristic clearly distinguishes them from populations that underwent recent drastic demographic declines or founder events, and implies long-term bottlenecks in these two populations. Although genetic drift due to spatial isolation and bottlenecks seems to be a major evolutionary force diversifying the European populations, we detected 35 loci that are putatively under diversifying selection. Two of these loci flank the canine platelet-derived growth factor gene, which affects bone growth and may influence differences in body size between wolf populations. This study demonstrates the power of population genomics for identifying genetic signals of demographic bottlenecks and detecting signatures of directional selection in bottlenecked populations, despite their low background variability.

The genes of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) are a key component of the mammalian immune system and have become important molecular markers for measuring fitness-related genetic variation in wildlife populations. Because of human persecution and habitat fragmentation, the grey wolf has become extinct from a large part of Western and Central Europe, and remaining populations have become isolated. In Croatia, the grey wolf population, part of the Dinaric – Balkan population, shrank nearly to extinction during the 20th century, and is now legally protected. Using the cloning – sequencing method, we investigated the genetic diversity and evolutionary history of exon 2 of MHC class II DLA-DRB1, DQA1 and DQB1 genes in 77 individuals. We identified 13 DRB1, 7 DQA1 and 11 DQB1 highly divergent alleles, and 13 DLA-DRB1/DQA1/DQB1 haplotypes. Selection analysis comparing the relative rates of non-synonymous to synonymous mutations (dN/dS) showed evidence of positive selection pressure acting on all three loci. Trans-species polymorphism was found, suggesting the existence of balancing selection. Evolutionary codon models detected considerable difference between alpha and beta chain gene selection patterns: DRB1 and DQB1 appeared to be under stronger selection pressure, while DQA1 showed signs of moderate selection. Our results suggest that, despite the recent contraction of the Croatian wolf population, genetic variability in selectively maintained immune genes has been preserved.

Today, the issues related to the presence of bears and wolves in the Czech Republic are more frequently discussed due to their occasional occurrence. The significant part of the public still considers these predators dangerous and they even think that a man is supposed to be their potential prey. A lot of surveys confirming this have been already taken, but none of them was focused on the views of primary and secondary schools students. As they are a part of the school education system, their views on the large carnivores should be mainly shaped by it. A questionnaire-based survey was used to find the attitudes of students. The first part of the questionnaire focused on the students' opinions about the dangerousness of predators, its reasons and common wolf presence in the Czech Republic. The second part of the questionnaire is focused on the domestic dog, which has wolf origins. It deals mainly with the attitudes of students to selected dog breeds, dog domestication awareness and views on the so- called "fighting breeds". This work has been aimed at identification of attitudes of the primary and secondary school students from different regions of the Czech Republic to the selected predators. The survey was also taken at primary schools in the High Tatras Mountains, an area where all the large...

Vzhledem k občasnému výskytu medvědů a vlků na českém území se stále častěji hovoří o problémech spojených s jejich přítomností. Velká část veřejnosti tyto šelmy stále považuje za nebezpečné, a dokonce si myslí, že člověka považují za potenciální kořist. Na toto téma byla již provedena řada průzkumů, které to potvrzují, avšak žádný z nich nebyl zaměřen na názory žáků základních a středních škol. Žáci jsou součástí školního vzdělávacího systému a informace ze školní výuky by měly z větší části formovat i jejich názor na velké šelmy. Cílem této práce tedy bylo zjistit postoje žáků základních a studentů středních škol z různých oblastí České republiky k vybraným šelmám. Postoje žáků se zjišťovaly na základě dotazníkového šetření. Mezi respondenty byli zahrnuti i žáci ze základní školy ve Vysokých Tatrách, tedy z oblasti, kde se všechny velké šelmy vyskytují a nikdy člověkem nebyly vyhubeny. Jak ale ukazují výsledky tohoto šetření, informace žáků o nebezpečnosti šelem jsou zkreslené. Žáci považují velké šelmy za člověka nebezpečné o hodně častěji než dospělí. Více než třetina dotazovaných žáků si myslí, že vlk je agresivní a při každém střetu s člověkem ho může napadnout. Stejného názoru na medvěda je dokonce více než polovina dotazovaných. Výsledky této práce mají poukázat na informovanost žáků o našich šelmách a mohly by být prospěšné v osvětových programech spojených s reintrodukcí velkých šelem zpět do přírody., The majority of the public considers these predators to be dangerous and even thinks that they look upon humans as prey. There has been much research carried out on this topic, which this fact confirms, but none of it has focused on the opinions of of primary and secondary school pupils. Students are part of the school educational system and their opinions about large predators are largely formed from the information they receive through school education. The purpose of this assignment was to find out the attitudes of primary and secondary school students from different parts of the Czech Republic towards selected predators. The investigation into student attitudes was based on a survey. The respondents included students from a primary school in the High Tatras Mountains, i.e. an area where many large carnivores are located which have never been eradicated by humans. As the results of the survey show, the information students receive about predator danger is distorted. Students consider large carnivores to be dangerous to humans more often than adults do. More than a third of the surveyed pupils think that the wolf is aggressive and may attack each time it meets a human. More than half are of the same opinion regarding the danger posed by the brown bear. The results of this research may demonstrate the level of information pupils possess regarding large predators and could contribute toward public awareness programs related to the reintroduction of large carnivores back into nature.

Today, the issues related to the presence of bears and wolves in the Czech Republic are more frequently discussed due to their occasional occurrence. The significant part of the public still considers these predators dangerous and they even think that a man is supposed to be their potential prey. A lot of surveys confirming this have been already taken, but none of them was focused on the views of primary and secondary schools students. As they are a part of the school education system, their views on the large carnivores should be mainly shaped by it. A questionnaire-based survey was used to find the attitudes of students. The first part of the questionnaire focused on the students' opinions about the dangerousness of predators, its reasons and common wolf presence in the Czech Republic. The second part of the questionnaire is focused on the domestic dog, which has wolf origins. It deals mainly with the attitudes of students to selected dog breeds, dog domestication awareness and views on the so- called "fighting breeds". This work has been aimed at identification of attitudes of the primary and secondary school students from different regions of the Czech Republic to the selected predators. The survey was also taken at primary schools in the High Tatras Mountains, an area where all the large...

Decline of grey wolf (Canis lupus L.) populations in Europe started some 250 years ago, causing almost complete eradication of wolves in Western Europe. As a consequence majority of remaining populations today exhibit unique haplotypes. Dinaric population has survived the eradication, representing the closest stable wolf gene pool to the West Europe. The grey wolf in Croatia came to the edge of extinction at the beginning of the ´90s, while during the last 10 years increase of population size has been observed and in 2008 it was estimated at around 200 individuals. We have analyzed 281 bp part of the mtDNA control region of 91 grey wolf samples from Croatia. Totally four haplotypes with 11 polymorphic sites have been identified, with haplotype diversity of 0.711 ± 0.018. One haplotype is new and so far has not been registered in any grey wolf population worldwide. Croatian wolf population has one of the highest mtDNA variability recorded until now, probably retaining a significant portion of genetic diversity of the formerly widespread and continuous European wolf population. Therefore, Croatian wolf population is a valuable source of gene diversity, which through immigration could help restore populations with reduced variability.

Pedersen, H.C., Wabakken, P., Arnemo, J.M., Brainerd, S.M., Brøseth, H., Gundersen, H., Hjeljord, O., Liberg, O., Sand, H., Solberg, E.J., Storaas, T., Strømseth, T.H., Wam, H. & Zimmermann, B. 2005. Rovvilt og Samfunn (RoSa). Det skandinaviske ulveprosjektet - SKANDULV. Oversikt over gjennomførte aktiviteter i 2000-2004. - NINA Rapport 117. 78 s. Denne rapporten oppsummerer kort hovedaktivitetene vi har hatt i perioden 2000-2004 i forbindelse med ulveforskning gjennom prosjektet Rovvilt og Samfunn (RoSa). Prosjektet har mottatt økonomisk støtte fra Norges forskningsråd, Direktoratet for naturforvaltning, Fylkesmennene i Hedmark, Oslo/Akershus og Østfold, Stor-Elvdal, Åmot, Trysil, Elverum, Våler, Åsnes, Grue, Kongsvinger og Eidskog kommuner, Borregaard Skoger AS, Glommen Skogeierforening, Norges Skogeierforbund, Norskog, Åmot Utmarksråd, Sve-Nor-Älg og TRÅ elgregioner. Rapporten er først og fremst en tilbakerapportering til disse. Etter at ulvebestanden vokste utover på 1990-tallet ble det stadig mer aktuelt å starte opp mer koordinert ulveforskning både i Norge og Sverige. Fordi den norsk-svenske riksgrensa skjærer tvert gjennom ulvebestandens kjerneområde, og problemer knyttet til ulv finnes på begge sider av grensa, innså man at påbegynt ulveforskning i de to landene burde samordnes og styrkes. I 2000 opprettet man derfor Det skandinaviske ulveforskningsprosjektet, med kortnavnet SKANDULV. Forskere fra 7 ulike vitenskapelige institusjoner arbeider innen SKANDULV; Norsk institutt for naturforskning, Høgskolen i Hedmark, Universitetet for miljø- og biovitenskap, Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet, Grimsö forskningsstation, Universitetet i Uppsala og Universitetet i Lund. Det overordnede mål med SKANDULVs virksomhet er å framskaffe faktaunderlag for en opti-mal forvaltning av ulv i Norge og Sverige, samt å bidra til spredning av informasjon om ulvens biologi og forvaltning til et bredt publikum. En del av resultatene som har framkommet i dette prosjektet ble rapportert i forbindelse med utarbeidelse av ny rovviltmelding i 2003 (jf. St. meld. Nr. 15 (2003-2004) Rovvilt i norsk natur). Mye innsamlet data er ennå ikke ferdig analysert og flere av konklusjonene som framkommer her vil derfor ikke være endelige. Selv om mye feltarbeid videreføres også utover 2004, har 2005 vært preget av oppsummering og analysering av allerede tilgjengelig data. Dette vil gjenspeiles i en økende publiseringstakt av vitenskapelige og mer populærvitenskapelig artikler i årene som kommer. © Norsk institutt for naturforskning Publikasjonen kan siteres fritt med kildeangivelse

We recorded a total of 92 dead grey wolves (Canis lupus) in Croatia during 1986-2001: 60 (65.2%) were shot, 18 (19.6%) died in traffic accidents, the causes of death of 6 (6.5%) wolves remained unknown, 5 (5.4%) had rabies, and one each was killed by axe, by hay-fork, and by other wolves. Among dead wolves the share of females was 56%, the mean age was 1.9 years, and the mean mass of adult wolves was 31.4 kg. We analyzed separately the last 10 years (1986-1995) before, and in the first 6 years (1996-2001) after the legal protection of the species (15 May 1995), when 30 and 62 wolves died, respectively. The yearly mortality grew from 3.0 before protection to 10.3 after protection (3.4 times). This increase in mortality indicates no enforcement of legal protection, as well as the increase of the animosity of local people. It was also partly influenced by a wolf population growth and seems that the recorded mortality is sustainable. We propose to adapt the legislation to allow controlled hunting of wolves. That will likely lead to decreased animosity and will keep the wolf population safe of uncontrolled hunting.

We recorded a total of 92 dead grey wolves (Canis lupus) in Croatia during the period1986-2001: 60 (65.2%) were shot, 18 (19.6%) died as a result of traffic accidents, while the cause of death of 6 (6.5%) wolves remained unknown, 5 (5.4%) suffered from rabies, and one each was killed by axe, by hay-fork, and by other wolves. Among dead wolves the share of females was 56%, mean age was 1.9 years, and the mean mass of adult wolves was 31.4 kg. We analyzed separately the 10 years (1986-1995) preceding, and the first 6 years (1996-2001) after the legal protection of the species (15 May 1995), when 30 and 62 wolves died, respectively. Annual mortality rose from 3.0 prior to protection to 10.3 after protection (3.4 times). This increase in mortality indicates no enforcement of the legal protection, as well as an increase in animosity by local people; it was also partly influenced by wolf population growth and it would appear that the recorded mortality is sustainable. We propose to adapt the legislation to permit the controlled hunting of wolves. This would in all likelihood lead to decreased animosity and would keep the wolf population safe from uncontrolled hunting., Od 1986. do 2001. zabilježena je smrt ukupno 92 siva vuka (Canis lupus) u Hrvatskoj: 60 (65.2%) su ustrijeljena, 18 (19.6%) je poginulo u prometnim nezgodama, za 6 (6.5%) vukova je uzrok smrti ostao nepoznat, 5 (5.4%) je imalo bjesnoću, a po jedan su ubijeni sjekirom, vilama ili od drugih vukova. Udio ženki među mrtvim vukovima je bio 56%, prosječna dob je bila 1.9 godina, a prosječna masa 31.4 kg. Posebno je analizirano posljednjih 10 godina (1986-1995) prije, te prvih 6 godina (1996-2001) nakon zakonske zaštite vrste (15. svibanj 1995.), a u kojim je razdobljima stradalo 30 odnosno 62 vuka. Godišnja smrtnost je porasla sa 3.0 prije zaštite na 10.3 nakon zaštite (3.4 puta). Ovaj porast pokazuje da se zakon ne provodi, kao i porast neprihvaćanja vuka od lokalnog stanovništva. Porast smrtnosti dijelom je povezan i s porastom populacije vuka te se čini da je veličina zabilježene smrtnosti podnošljiva za populaciju. Predlaže se prihvaćanje propisa koji bi omogućavali ograničeni i kontrolirani lov vukova. To bi moglo dovesti i do smanjenja mržnje prema vuku i posljedičnog smanjenja rizika za populaciju od nekontroliranog ilegalnog ubijanja.

Roads and railways are causing habitat fragmentation, disturbance and direct mortality to all three species of large carnivores in Croatia. As traffic is becoming faster, quieter and denser, and the number of traffic routes is increasing, so traffic kills are on the increase. Traffic related mortality in Croatia involved Brown Bear Ursus arctos, Eurasian Lynx Lynx lynx, and Grey Wolf Canis lupus. During the period 1986-94, 19% (42 of 217) of the total Brown Bear mortality was caused by traffic (as compared with 11% until 1985); 6.6% (10 of 151) of total Eurasian Lynx mortality during the period 1978-95 was due to traffic, and 3.6% (20 of 560) of total Grey Wolf mortality since 1945 resulted from traffic accidents. Large carnivores in the first year of their life were found to be significantly more vulnerable to such accidents than older individuals, relative to their share in the population (wolves P