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Countless contracts have been undermined by the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 as well as government orders to contain it. Flights have been canceled, concerts have been called off, and dorms have been closed, just to name a few. Do these all count as breaches of contract-or are the parties excused due to the extraordinary circumstances? And how should the losses be allocated between the parties? The law provides one set of answers to these questions; ethics offers another. With a focus on American law (developed over the past two centuries) and Jewish ethics (developed over millennia), this paper shows that the two systems are in accord with some respects and differ in others: Both law and Jewish ethics would excuse a party who cannot complete his contract due to a force beyond his control, like the COVID-19 pandemic. Yet Jewish ethics would require that the excused party still be paid, while American law would not.

Con la Ley 1819 de 2016 se introdujo a la legislación colombiana modificaciones al tratamiento tributario de los contratos de leasing financiero y operativo. En este documento se presentan problemas jurídicos derivados de la nueva configuración tributaria del leasing financiero en el impuesto sobre la renta e IVA, originados en la redacción e interpretación del artículo 127-1 del estatuto. El presente documento se desarrolla bajo la metodología de investigación dogmática, parte del análisis de la legislación colombiana y tiene como insumo importante la investigación de la doctrina emitida por la DIAN como fuente auxiliar, relevante para entender el alcance de esta norma. The enaction of the Law 1819 of 2016, introduced into the Colombian Tax Legislation a change to the special tax treatment of financial and operational leasing contracts. This document presents to the reader different legal problems arising from the wording of the financial leasing contract rules in the income tax and value added tax (VAT), which mainly originate from the drafting and interpretation of the article 127-1 of the Colombian Tax Code, as the special fiscal rule that establishes the treatment of leasing contracts for tax purposes. This document is developed under the dogmatic methodology, to the extent that different legal analyzes are carried out, and counts with the important input of the doctrine (i.e., tax rulings) issued by the Colombian Tax Authority (DIAN by its acronym in Spanish) as a relevant auxiliary source for the understanding of the scope of financial leasing fiscal treatment.

This article analyzes the state of insolvency or bankruptcy that may be incurred by those who default or fear default on their obligations. This breach is the source of a new legal situation and an economic and patrimonial state of the debtor, which is declared judicially to organize its creditors legally and preserve the insolvent debtor’s assets and later liquidate and distribute them.Once this situation has been analyzed (which may be fortuitous, guilty or fraudulent), the five types of bankruptcy procedures that Ecuadorian legislation provides are reviewed and differentiated: preventive, preventive for commercial companies, exceptional preventive, voluntary and necessary, highlighting the effects and consequences that each one of them generates for or against the debtor.Finally, the authors’ conclusions regarding this legal institution and its application in the Ecuadorian judicial system will be reviewed. KEYWORDS: Contract law, civil liability, legal procedure, credit, debts. JEL CODE: K0,K2, P23 ABSTRACTThis article analyzes the state of insolvency or bankruptcy that may be incurred by those who default or fear default on their obligations. This breach is the source of a new legal situation and an economic and patrimonial state of the debtor, which is declared judicially to organize its creditors legally and preserve the insolvent debtor’s assets and later liquidate and distribute them.Once this situation has been analyzed (which may be fortuitous, guilty or fraudulent), the five types of bankruptcy procedures that Ecuadorian legislation provides are reviewed and differentiated: preventive, preventive for commercial companies, exceptional preventive, voluntary and necessary, highlighting the effects and consequences that each one of them generates for or against the debtor.Finally, the authors’ conclusions regarding this legal institution and its application in the Ecuadorian judicial system will be reviewed. KEYWORDS: Contract law, civil liability, legal procedure, credit, debts. RESUMENEl presente artículo analiza la situación de insolvencia o quiebra en la que pueden incurrir aquellas personas que incumplen o temen incumplir con sus obligaciones de dar, hacer o no hacer. Esta falta o incumplimiento da lugar a una situación jurídica y estado económico y patrimonial del deudor, el cual se declara judicialmente con el fin de organizar legalmente a sus acreedores y así depurar y conservar el patrimonio del deudor insolvente, para posteriormente liquidarlo y repartírselo.Una vez analizada esta situación (la cual puede ser fortuita, culpable o fraudulenta), por medio de un enfoque descriptivo y del método sistemático, se revisarán y diferenciarán los cinco tipos de procedimientos concursales que nuestra legislación contempla: preventivo, preventivo para sociedades mercantiles, preventivo excepcional, voluntario y el necesario, destacando los efectos y consecuencias que cada uno de ellos genera a favor o en contra del deudor vencido. Este estudio se realizará en base a la doctrina ecuatoriana, peruana y española que sobre el concordato, se ha pronunciado.Finalmente se revisarán las conclusiones de los autores respecto a esta institución jurídica y su aplicación en nuestro sistema judicial. CÓDIGO JEL: K0,K2,K23 Cet article analyse l'état d'insolvabilité ou de faillite qui peut être encouru par ceux qui manquent ou craignent de manquer à leurs obligations. Ce manquement est à l'origine d'une nouvelle situation juridique et d'un état économique et patrimonial du débiteur, qui est déclaré judiciairement pour organiser légalement ses créanciers et préserver les biens du débiteur insolvable pour ensuite les liquider et les répartir.Une fois cette situation analysée (qui peut être fortuite, coupable ou frauduleuse), les cinq types de procédures de faillite que prévoit la législation équatorienne sont passés en revue et différenciés : préventive, préventive pour les entreprises commerciales, préventive exceptionnelle, volontaire et nécessaire, mettant en évidence les effets et conséquences que chacun d'eux engendre pour ou contre le débiteur.Enfin, les conclusions des auteurs concernant cette institution juridique et son application dans le système judiciaire équatorien seront passées en revue. MOTS CLÉS: Droit des contrats, responsabilité civile, procédure judiciaire, crédit, dettes. CODE JEL: K0, K2, P23 Questo articolo analizza lo stato di insolvenza o fallimento in cui possono incorrere coloro che sono inadempienti o temono di non adempiere alle proprie obbligazioni. Tale violazione è fonte di una nuova situazione giuridica e di uno stato economico e patrimoniale del debitore, che è dichiarato giudizialmente di organizzare legalmente i propri creditori e preservare i beni del debitore insolvente per poi liquidarli e distribuirli.Una volta analizzata questa situazione (che può essere fortuita, colpevole o fraudolenta), vengono riviste e differenziate le cinque tipologie di procedure concorsuali che la legislazione ecuadoriana prevede: preventiva, preventiva per le società commerciali, preventiva eccezionale, volontaria e necessaria, evidenziando gli effetti e conseguenze che ciascuno di essi genera a favore o contro il debitore.Infine, saranno riviste le conclusioni degli autori riguardo a questa istituzione giuridica e alla sua applicazione nel sistema giudiziario ecuadoriano. PAROLE CHIAVE: Contrattualistica, responsabilità civile, procedura legale, credito, debiti. CODICE JEL: K0,K2, P23 Este artigo analisa o estado de insolvência ou falência em que podem incorrer aqueles que inadimplem ou temem inadimplir suas obrigações. Esta violação é fonte de uma nova situação jurídica e de um estado econômico e patrimonial do devedor, que é declarado judicialmente para organizar legalmente os seus credores e preservar os bens do devedor insolvente e posteriormente liquidá-los e distribuí-los.Uma vez analisada esta situação (que pode ser fortuita, culpada ou fraudulenta), são revisados ​​e diferenciados os cinco tipos de procedimentos falimentares que a legislação equatoriana prevê: preventivo, preventivo para empresas comerciais, preventivo excepcional, voluntário e necessário, destacando os efeitos e consequências que cada uma delas gera a favor ou contra o devedor.Por fim, serão revisadas as conclusões dos autores sobre esta instituição jurídica e sua aplicação no sistema judicial equatoriano. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Direito contratual, responsabilidade civil, processo legal, crédito, dívidas. CÓDIGO JEL: K0, K2, P23

Ugovorno pravo najznačajniji je aspekt građanskopravnih odnosa. Ono uređuje prava i obveze pravnih subjekata te je iz razloga pravne sigurnosti, zaštite pravnih subjekata i zaštite prava pravnih subjekata od iznimne važnosti da pravni sustav osigura kvalitetan i cjelovit mehanizam pravne zaštite. Užurbanim tehnološkim razvojem omogućeno je da ugovorni odnosi nastaju i putem informacijskih tehnologija što od pravnog sustava iziskuje prilagodbu i regulaciju novonastalih nereguliranih situacija. Jedan od primjera gdje pravo tek treba iznaći kvalitetna rješenja za regulacijom su pametni ugovori. Pametni ugovori, kao automatizirani internetski protokoli za izvršavanje uvjeta ugovora okosnica su promišljanja ovog rada. Cilj rada je na temelju detaljne usporedne analize pametnih ugovora i ugovora u tradicionalnom obliku, kakvim ih poznaje hrvatski pravni sustav, odgovoriti na pitanje jesu li pametni ugovori zapravo ugovori, zadovoljavaju li osnovne pretpostavke koje pravni sustav nameće u regulaciji ugovora te koja je njihova uloga. Ostala pitanja, na koja ovaj rad daje odgovor su pitanje njihove primjene, pitanje postojećeg pravnog okvira koji regulira pametne ugovore te pitanje mogućnosti implementacije pametnih ugovora u hrvatski pravni sustav., Contractual law is the most significant aspect of civil law. It governs the rights and obligations of legal entities and, for reasons of legal certainty, the protection of legal entities and the protection of the rights of legal entities is of immense importance that the legal system provides a quality and comprehensive legal mechanism. Great technological development has enabled the existence of contractual relations through information technologies, which requires the legal system to adapt and regulate emerging unregulated situations. One example of where the law is yet to find quality solutions for the regulation is smart contracts. Smart contracts, as automated online protocols for the execution of contractual terms, are the backbone of the thinking in this paper. The aim of the work is based on a detailed comparative analysis of smart contracts and contracts in the traditional form, as they are familiar with the Croatian legal system, to answer the question of whether smart contracts are contracts, whether they meet the underlying assumptions that the legal system imposes in the regulation of contracts and what their role is. Other issues, to which this work is addressed are the question of their application, the question of the existing legal framework governing smart contracts and the issue of the possibility of implementing smart contracts into the Croatian legal system.

this contribution explains how private law can and should play a role in the sustainability debate and the sustainability transition. Whereas some defend the view that sustainability should be reached via public law rules, the view is defended that private law (contract law, law of obligations, corporate law, ...) allows for economic and financial activities and makes them enforceable. Hence if, as claimed by different scientist, economic and financial actives are causing the sustainability challenges our society is currently facing, private law is co-culprit.

ilustraciones, gráficas, tablas El presente trabajo de maestría en modalidad profundización explora una fundamentación jurídica para aplicar el Estatuto de Consumo (Ley 1480 de 2011) al pequeño empresario, a la micro, pequeña y mediana (PYMES) empresa cuando actúa con doble finalidad y en cierto modo integra el producto adquirido a la cadena de producción. En Colombia, el ordenamiento de consumo permite a una persona física o jurídica satisfacer necesidades propias, privadas y empresariales que no estén “intrínsecamente” vinculadas con la actividad económica del empresario. Sin embargo, la norma no regula explícitamente el supuesto de la doble finalidad, es decir, cuando el empresario satisface necesidades privadas y empresariales a la vez. La respuesta brindada por los tribunales en Colombia parece excluir del ámbito del consumo al empresario que integre de alguna forma el producto o bien a la cadena productiva. Ante tal insuficiencia el trabajo propone a partir de un análisis de derecho nacional y comparado una interpretación pro-consumidor que distinga si se trata de un contrato entre empresas (B2B) o entre empresa y consumidor (B2C), y concluye la necesidad de reformar la noción de consumidor actual en favor de micronegocios que en una relación de consumo actúen con doble finalidad. (Texto tomado de la fuente). This work proposes a legal foundation to apply the Consumer Statute (Law 1480 of 2011) to the small businessman, to the micro, small and medium-sized company when it acts with dual purposes and in a certain way integrates the acquired product into the production chain. In Colombia, the order of consumption allows a natural or legal person to satisfy their own private and business needs that are not “intrinsically” linked to the economic activity of the entrepreneur. However, the norm does not precisely regulate the assumption of dualpurpose when the employer simultaneously meets personal and business needs. The response provided by the national courts has been to exclude the entrepreneur who somehow integrates the product or the production chain from the scope of consumption. Based on an analysis of local and comparative law, this work proposes a guaranteed interpretation that distinguishes whether it is a contract between companies (B2B) or between company and consumer (B2C), in favor of micro-businesses that in a consumer relationship act with a dual purpose. Maestría Magíster en Derecho

Статья посвящена сравнительному анализу положений о заключении коммерческих договоров Гражданского кодекса Российской Федерации и Конвенции Организации Объединенных Наций о договорах международной купли-продажи товаров. В работе анализируются правила заключения коммерческих договоров посредством оферты и акцепта включая акцепт совершением действиями, а также исследуются требования к форме коммерческих договоров., This article deals with comparative analysis of rules on formation of commercial contracts under Russian Civil Code and The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods. This article covers conclusion of commercial contracts by means of offer and acceptance including acceptance by conduct. The article also illustrates the issue of form of commercial contracts.

According to part of the US scholarship, the use of big data and prediction algorithms could entail a paradigmatic change in contract law: No longer would one have general and abstract legal norms, but rather granular and personalized ones, customized on the needs and features of the contracting parties. This shift to a law tailored to specific individuals could affect both default and mandatory rules and provide for a more efficient and just legal system. The argument goes that such a flexible and technology-driven regulation is also capable of addressing the issue of unfair personalized pricing schemes applied by businesses in online transactions. The present contribution adopts a futuristic approach and investigates whether these doctrinal proposals could possibly pave the way for an amendment of the Directive 93/13 on unfair terms in consumer contracts. In doing so, the main elements of the unfair terms control are highlighted, together with their link with national default rules, which serve both as a benchmark for the assessment of the unfair character of the clause and as gap-fillers. Based on a comparison with the findings of US scholars, it then explores how the unfair terms control may change in order to reduce cross-subsidies to a minimum and tackle discriminatory pricing schemes. Finally, this article elaborates further on how the modifications could be implemented within a new enforcement mechanism, using a technology that would also cover so-called smart contracts. personalization, unfair terms control, big data, consumer contracts. Motsclés: Personnalisation, Contrôle de clauses abusives, Grandes bases de données, Contrats conclus avec les consommateurs Schlüsselwörter: Personalisierung, Kontrolle missbräuchlicher Klauseln, Big Data, Verbraucherverträge

Vanwege het nieuwe coronavirus (COVID-19) overwegen veel bedrijven de lonen van werknemers te verlagen. Sommige bedrijven vragen van de werknemers om 'een steentje bij te dragen', andere eisen loonoffers. In dit artikel wordt ingegaan op het juridisch kader voor eenzijdig wijzigen van arbeidsvoorwaarden, maar wordt ook gekeken naar de recente ontwikkelingen met betrekking tot deeltijdontslag die een interessante invalshoek op loonmatiging kunnen bieden. "This content was supported by the H2020 WorkYP project (GA number 870619) and reflects only author’s view.”

This paper presents a selection of legal topics in the context of data analytics and Big Data from a lawyer’s perspective. After introducing the reader to the role of law, both in the analogue and the digital world (1), the paper gives a systematic overview of some of the currently most relevant data-related legal topics (2). While digitalisation and data processing poses new questions to all areas of law, this paper focusses on the role Big Data plays in competition, data protection and contract law, as those are closely interlinked and address similar data-related phenomena. The paper was written from a mainly European perspective and presents some specific approaches European law takes to address the challenges we face with the advent of Big Data.

We are living in a data era where data drives everything we do, including businesses. In data-driven business models, users’ personal data is collected in order to determine consumer preferences and to tailor production and advertising to these preferences. In these new business models, consumers do not pay a price but provide their data, such as IP numbers, locations, and email addresses in order to benefit from digital service or digital content. Content or service providers and users have something in common in these “free” business models which is to benefit from each other. Users benefit from the content or service but they provide their personal data and/or they are exposed to advertisements in return. This legal framework and trade cannot be made without taking contract law into consideration. Contracts naturally facilitate interactions between companies and users. Their transactions are regulated by contracts in which their agreement on data use and data processing are stipulated. In the last two to three decades, in particular, personal data has started to function similar to the functionality of money in synallagmatic transactions. In this vein, it goes without saying that the role of contract law is becoming more significant and complicated because it does not only concern the economic ordering and economic transactions anymore but also as it is personal data, data protection law comes into play which is considered a part of fundamental rights protection. Data is always collected and processed through a contractual relationship and in this paper, I will argue that there are problems arising from contracts involving data to which contract law applies and that contract law can map these problems and offer insights. The scope of this study will be limited to issues where data is provided as counter-performance and where data is provided in addition to a monetary payment.

The article focuses on whether, in the case of a breach of a sales contract, the buyer can remedy the non-conformity of the goods independently and claim damages for the cost of repair without giving the seller an opportunity to cure his failure to perform. The analysis is based on the solutions adopted in the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods. The issue has recently given rise to divergent approaches in the literature. The article seeks to shed new light on the problem and offers a way of resolving the question of the interplay between the seller’s right to cure and the buyer’s right to claim damages for the cost of repair. The principal conclusion is that the buyer’s right to claim damages for the cost of repair and the seller’s right to cure do not stand on an equal footing. Rather, the seller’s right to cure has priority over the buyer’s damages claim. As long as the seller is entitled to remedy his failure to perform under the Convention, the buyer cannot cure the nonconformity independently. If he does so, he cannot claim compensation for the costs incurred as a result of the repair. The right to cure; United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods; CISG; damages; breach of contract; remedies; sales contract; repair; avoidance; favour contractus

Nowadays, the breach of contractual obligations has caused great debate in the law academy, this due to the need for contractual relationships that are less susceptible to extinction and figures that avoid this extinction. For this reason, a part of doctrine has preferred to opt for less orthodox remedies that allow the resolution of controversies without initiating judicial processes. Due to the above, this article will analyze the feasibility of applying a figure such as contractual solidarity in Ecuador. In addition to delimiting that the characteristics of the Ecuadorian legal system allow the application of of this remedies but the principle of good faith to be at the center of solving problems in the event of breach of contract and that the creation of norms such as remedies for breaches are affected by regulatory obstacles in the law. For this purpose, the contract will first be analyzed as a figure and the breach within the field of Civil law and in the Ecuadorian context. Afterwards, contractual solidarity will be explored briefly, and the last section will study the possibility of applying this figure in the Ecuadorian legal system and the consequences that this would entail. KEY WORDS: contract law, legal liability, legal theory, legal systems, doctrine. JEL CODE: J41, K12 SOMMARIO: Al giorno d’oggi, l’inadempimento degli obblighi contrattuali ha causato un grande dibattito in dottrina, a causa della necessità di relazioni contrattuali meno suscettibili di estinzione e di figure che evitino tale estinzione. Per questo motivo, una parte della dottrina ha preferito optare per rimedi meno ortodossi che consentano di risolvere le controversie senza avviare processi giudiziari. L’ articolo analizzerà la fattibilità dell’applicazione di una figura come la solidarietà contrattuale in Ecuador. Inoltre, le caratteristiche del sistema giuridico ecuadoriano consentirebbero l’applicazione di questi rimedi pur con difficoltà attraverso la buona fede. A tal fine, verrà prima analizzato il contratto e il suo inadempimento nell’ambito del diritto civile e nel contesto ecuadoriano. Successivamente, verrà esplorata brevemente la solidarietà contrattuale e l’ultima sezione studierà la possibilità di applicare questa figura nel sistema giuridico ecuadoriano e le conseguenze che ciò comporterebbe. PAROLE CHIAVE: diritto dei contratti, responsabilità legale, teoria legale, sistemi legali, dottrina. RESUMEN: En la actualidad, el incumplimiento de las obligaciones contractuales ha provocado un gran debate en la academia de derecho, esto debido a la necesidad de relaciones contractuales menos susceptibles de extinción y figuras que eviten esta extinción. Por ello, una parte de la doctrina ha preferido optar por recursos menos ortodoxos que permitan la resolución de controversias sin iniciar procesos judiciales. Por lo anterior, este artículo analizará la factibilidad de aplicar una figura como la solidaridad contractual en Ecuador. Además, las características del ordenamiento jurídico ecuatoriano permitirían la aplicación de estos recursos a pesar de las dificultades de buena fe. Para ello, se analizará primero el contrato como figura y el incumplimiento en el ámbito del Derecho Civil y en el contexto ecuatoriano. Posteriormente se explorará brevemente la solidaridad contractual, y en el último apartado se estudiará la posibilidad de aplicar esta figura en el ordenamiento jurídico ecuatoriano y las consecuencias que ello conllevaría. PALABRAS CLAVE: derecho contractual, responsabilidad legal, teoría jurídica, ordenamientos jurídicos, doctrina. JEL CODE / CLASIFICACIÓN JEL: J41, K12 SOMMARIO: Al giorno d’oggi, l’inadempimento degli obblighi contrattuali ha causato un grande dibattito in dottrina, a causa della necessità di relazioni contrattuali meno suscettibili di estinzione e di figure che evitino tale estinzione. Per questo motivo, una parte della dottrina ha preferito optare per rimedi meno ortodossi che consentano di risolvere le controversie senza avviare processi giudiziari. L’ articolo analizzerà la fattibilità dell’applicazione di una figura come la solidarietà contrattuale in Ecuador. Inoltre, le caratteristiche del sistema giuridico ecuadoriano consentirebbero l’applicazione di questi rimedi pur con difficoltà attraverso la buona fede. A tal fine, verrà prima analizzato il contratto e il suo inadempimento nell’ambito del diritto civile e nel contesto ecuadoriano. Successivamente, verrà esplorata brevemente la solidarietà contrattuale e l’ultima sezione studierà la possibilità di applicare questa figura nel sistema giuridico ecuadoriano e le conseguenze che ciò comporterebbe. PAROLE CHIAVE: diritto dei contratti, responsabilità legale, teoria legale, sistemi legali, dottrina. RESUMEN: En la actualidad, el incumplimiento de las obligaciones contractuales ha provocado un gran debate en la academia de derecho, esto debido a la necesidad de relaciones contractuales menos susceptibles de extinción y figuras que eviten esta extinción. Por ello, una parte de la doctrina ha preferido optar por recursos menos ortodoxos que permitan la resolución de controversias sin iniciar procesos judiciales. Por lo anterior, este artículo analizará la factibilidad de aplicar una figura como la solidaridad contractual en Ecuador. Además, las características del ordenamiento jurídico ecuatoriano permitirían la aplicación de estos recursos a pesar de las dificultades de buena fe. Para ello, se analizará primero el contrato como figura y el incumplimiento en el ámbito del Derecho Civil y en el contexto ecuatoriano. Posteriormente se explorará brevemente la solidaridad contractual, y en el último apartado se estudiará la posibilidad de aplicar esta figura en el ordenamiento jurídico ecuatoriano y las consecuencias que ello conllevaría. JEL CODE / CLASIFICACIÓN JEL: J41, K12 &nbsp

The emergence and development of civil law as an independent branch of law was associated with the development of commodity-money relations and first developed in ancient Rome. Roman law was formed on the basis of customary law as well as the judicial practice of masters who resolved property disputes. Therefore, it was in Roman law that the main provisions of modern civil law were first formed. A powerful impetus to the development of civilization thought was the rapid development of commodity-money relations in the Russian Empire.The high level of development of civil law science in pre-revolutionary Russia influenced the formation of civil law in the Kazakh region. A prominent social and political figure, professional lawyer, one of the leaders of «Alash», the head of the Western branch of «Alash-Orda», Zhakhansha Dosmukhamedov was at the forefront of the development of civil law thought in the territory of modern Kazakhstan.His political and legal views were formed under the influence of progressive ideas of representatives of the Kazakh intelligentsia, Russian socio-political thought of the 19th – early 20th centuries, Western thinkers and lawyers. In this article, the author first examined the role of Zhakhanshi Dosmukhamedov as a civilist in the formation and development of civil law in the Kazakh region. Also the autorth identified main stages of him political and legal views.