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Animal handlers may be harmed on the job due to injuries inflicted by animals; dangers related to the facility, work activities, and equipment; and weather extremes. Traumatic or venomous attacks by animals can result in fatality. Potentially hazardous features of the work environment include fumigation chambers, cage washers, slippery walking surfaces, needles and scalpels, food preparation equipment, noise, radiation, and motor vehicles. Heat- and cold-related injuries are not uncommon. Attention to safety measures is of critical importance in the field of animal handling.

More than 200 diseases are transmitted from animals to humans. Zoonotic infections can be transmitted via animal bites, arthropod vectors, especially ticks and mosquitoes, and direct contact with animals. Infections also can be contracted indirectly by ingestion of contaminated food or water or contact with contaminated hides, wool, or fur. Persons at risk of zoonotic infections include people who enjoy outdoor leisure activities such as hiking, camping, hunting, spelunking, and fishing. Occupational groups at risk include animal control officers, hunters, abattoir workers, farmers, fisherpersons, persons working with hides or wool, and laboratory workers working with zoonotic pathogens. The risk of infection can be reduced by appropriate use of personal protective equipment, immunizations, and measures to avoid insect bites.

Anesthetic agents are used extensively in veterinary medicine to facilitate safe restraint of animals and to provide humane conditions for diagnostic procedures and surgery. Animal workers in traditional veterinary practice, as well as those in research institutions, may become chronically exposed to trace levels of waste inhalant anesthetic agents during the daily performance of their duties. Individuals in private or institutional practice, municipal animal control officers, wildlife biologists, and zoological park employees are at risk for accidental exposure to potentially lethal quantities of injectable anesthetic agents during chemical restraint of domestic animals and capture of free-ranging animals. The purpose of this chapter is to review the health risks of anesthetic agents to animal workers and to provide specific recommendations for reducing worker exposure to these agents.

Every day, and for many reasons, animal handlers must euthanize animals in their care. Because euthanasia results in the death of an animal and involves a lethal agent, it is inherently dangerous for operators. Euthanasia technicians must know how to control the animal and understand normal animal behavior, the effect of handling, and how the agents work. Appropriate animal control is possibly the most important step, and the degree of control necessary depends on the animal and the chosen agent. Handlers should be trained in how to administer the agents. Trainers must fully explain why the animals must be euthanized, and operators should be allowed to refuse to euthanize animals. Everyone should be trained to recognize signs of excessive exposure to or abuse of euthanasia agents and take the necessary steps should an incident occur.

A number of chemical hazards are associated with the care and handling of animals. A variety of pesticides are used to control fleas, ticks, and other insects. Rodenticides often are used in animal housing facilities. Veterinarians and their helpers may be exposed to anesthetic gases, pharmaceuticals, including antineoplastic agents, disinfectants such as phenol and formaldehyde, and sterilants such as ethylene oxide. Great care must be taken to minimize occupational exposures to chemical hazards.

This chapter reviews the epidemiology, manifestations, etiologic agents, and exposure controls related to occupational allergies from animals and insects, including both respiratory and dermatologic responses. The overall prevalence of allergic respiratory symptoms in exposed workers is about 23% 4-9% of exposed individuals develop asthma. Symptom development is related to duration and intensity of exposure. The most prevalent dermatologic findings are contact urticaria and eczematous dermatitis. While a history of atopy is associated with the risk of symptom development, this factor has poor predictive value for any given individual. Similarly, skin testing and RAST testing are not sufficiently predictive to be recommended as screening tools, although they may identify individuals at some increased risk. The specific tissue sources of the major allergens are reviewed; for laboratory rats and mice, a urinary protein complex has been implicated. Environmental control of antigens is key in the prevention of allergic disease. Task-specific engineering controls, general environmental hygiene, training, and medical surveillance of workers are important elements of the prevention program.

A 14-page comprehensive survey was mailed to all 565 United States members of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians to identify the frequency of physical injuries, radiation exposures, chemical exposures, allergic or irritant reactions, infections, and use of preventive measures, and 315 (55.8%) veterinarians responded. Significant findings include major animal-related injury (61.5%), back injury (55%), necropsy injury (44.1%), adverse formalin exposure (40.2%), animal allergy (32.2%), zoonotic infection (30.2%), and insect allergy (14.2%). We also found that gender, length of experience, and practice type affected the number and type of incidents encountered in practice. Females reported a higher rate of zoonotic infection, insect allergy, and adverse exposure to anesthetic gas, formalin, and disinfectants/sterilants. Zoo veterinarians with more years of experience were more likely to receive major animal-related injury and associated hospitalization, back injury, and lost work time associated with back injury. Full-time zoo veterinarians were more likely to report back injury and inadequate knowledge of occupational hazards. Results are compared with hazards reported by veterinarians working in other fields. The frequency of injuries reported demonstrates a greater need for comprehensive health and safety programs for zoo veterinarians.

Objective: To estimate the time veterinary graduates spend in private practice and in veterinary work generally, and to determine what factors influence this., Methods: Questionnaires were completed in the sixth year after graduation by 119 veterinarians who had participated in this longitudinal study since starting the veterinary course, and the data were analysed using the SAS System for Windows., Results: Of those who started the veterinary course, 90% graduated and 96% of these then entered private practice. Five years later 94% (73% in full-time equivalents) were working as veterinarians, and 64% (50% in full-time equivalents) were still in private practice in Australia. Hours, attitudes of principals and clients, and inadequate rewards were the main reasons for leaving private practice. The likelihood of being still in private practice was greater for those who had had significant responsibility for animals before they entered the course, but it was not related to geographical origin (city vs country), age at entry or gender. Women were, however, more likely than men to be working part time as veterinarians. Predictions of veterinary working life were not affected by geographical origin or by previous experience with animals or on farms, but men expected to work longer than women., Conclusion: The average veterinary career, estimated by veterinarians who graduated 5 years earlier, is 24 years in full-time equivalents for men, and 16 years for women. Almost all (94%, representing 73% in full-time equivalents) still work as veterinarians after 5 years, most of them (76%, representing 59% in full-time equivalents) in private practice. The likelihood of remaining in private practice is related to previous responsibility for animals.

Objective: To estimate absolute and relative risks of preterm delivery (PTD) and small-for-gestational-age (SGA) births among a cohort of female veterinarians in relation to selected occupational factors, including clinical practice type (CPT)., Design: Retrospective cohort survey., Sample Population: 2,997 female graduates from US veterinary colleges between 1970 and 1980., Procedure: Relevant health and occupational data were collected through a self-administered mail questionnaire with telephone follow-up of nonrespondents. Absolute and relative risks of PTD and SGA births were estimated in relation to maternal CPT at the time of conception and exposure to 13 occupational factors. Attempts were made to control confounding by use of multiple logistic regression analyses., Results: Absolute and relative risks of PTD were highest for veterinarians employed in exclusively equine clinical practice. Although several increased, none of the CPT-specific relative risk estimates were significantly different from the null value of 1. Exposure-specific analyses indicated that occupational involvement with solvents among exclusively small animal practitioners was associated with the highest relative risk of PTD. A small number of SGA births limited information that could be obtained from these analyses. Overall absolute risks of PTD and SGA births among cohort members were much lower in comparison with the general female population., Clinical Implications: Given the large number of women currently practicing and entering the profession of veterinary medicine, clinical tasks associated with potential reproductive hazards should be approached with heightened awareness and increased caution, especially activities that may involve exposure to solvents.

In a recent study of female veterinarians, a subgroup of health professionals growing rapidly in number, the authors employed a mixed-mode survey design in targeting the cohort of women graduating from all US veterinary colleges during the 11-year period 1970-80 (n = 2,997). The questionnaire elicited information on a variety of health and occupational factors and required 35 minutes on average to complete. In the first stage, a modified version of Dillman's Total Design Method for mailed, self-administered questionnaires was employed, yielding a response rate of 82.9%. In the second stage, a telephone interview of all mail non-respondents was attempted, yielding a response rate here of only 30.1%, but increasing the overall response rate among those contacted to 90.2%. Non-respondents differed little from mail (early) or telephone (late) respondents with respect to year of graduation and geographic region of veterinary college attendance. Gentle probing of telephone non-respondents suggested the personal nature of some questions and the amount of time required to answer all questions were the main reasons they chose not to participate. It therefore appears that conventional survey techniques may be successfully employed in health studies of health professionals, particularly if issues of great concern to the target population are addressed.

In a mixed-mode survey of all 1970-80 female graduates of all US veterinary colleges, information was obtained regarding several health, personal and occupational factors including data on occupational needlestick events. Among the 2,532 survey respondents, 1,620 reported one or more needlesticks after graduation from veterinary college (64.0% of all respondents). A total of 2,663 stick events were reported, although the descriptions of each puncture event varied in quality/completeness, probably due in large part to their retrospective nature. Substances most often injected include vaccines, antibiotics, anaesthetics and animal blood. Of the 438 sticks resulting in at least one side-effect (16.4% of all sticks), 337 were classified as mild and localized at the site of injection (12.4% of all sticks, approximately 77% of sticks producing a side-effect), with 18 characterized as severe and systemic (0.7% of all sticks, approximately 4% of sticks producing a side-effect). One accidental self-injection of a prostaglandin compound resulted in a spontaneous abortion, heightening awareness that occupational needlesticks may also represent a serious human reproductive health hazard. The estimated overall needlestick injury rate for this group of health care professionals was 9.3 sticks per 100 person-years (PYs) of practice, comparable to reported rates among health care workers such as nurses, laboratory technicians and hospital housekeeping staff. Accounting for underreporting of the stick events, the actual injury rate is likely to be at least 20 sticks per 100 PYs. When stick rates were estimated by clinical practice type (small animal, large animal and mixed practice), all-small-animal and mixed-practice veterinarians demonstrated the highest rates, with all-large-animal practitioners demonstrating a rate lower by about 40%.

Objective: To determine the knowledge and expectations of veterinarians and clients regarding heartworm preventives and annual vaccinations for dogs., Design: Practitioner and client survey., Sample Population: 435 veterinarians and 1,805 clients., Procedure: A survey was mailed to veterinarians requesting information from them and their dog-owning clients on expectations and knowledge regarding heartworm preventives and annual vaccinations. Responses of veterinarians were compared with those of clients, and both were compared with label indications., Results: Expectations of veterinarians and clients regarding heartworm preventives were similar and usually were consistent with regulatory interpretation of label terms. Of clients purchasing heartworm preventives, 38% did not know that the medication was effective against intestinal nematodes. Veterinarians and clients would be unsatisfied with a product that reduced, but did not eliminate, all intestinal nematodes. Most clients knew that annual vaccinations included distemper virus, parvovirus, and rabies virus, but about half of them did not know that other antigens were in the vaccines., Clinical Implications: Effects of heartworm preventives and diseases for which dogs are annually vaccinated should be explained fully to clients.

Objective: To examine factors that influence career choices by veterinary graduates., Design: Longitudinal study., Population: Students-77 female and 77 males-who began studying veterinary science at The University of Queensland in 1985 and 1986., Procedure: Questionnaires were completed in the first and fifth year of the course, and in the second year after graduation. The data were arranged into an aggregated data set, then analysed using the SAS System for Windows., Results: These students chose veterinary science, in many cases at an early age, because of their attitudes towards animals rather than advice from other people. Most had extensive experience with animals, and many gained this in cities rather than on farms. Between half and two-thirds of them looked forward to a career in private-practice when they were in first year. The proportion planning a career in private practice was highest for those who chose veterinary science before they were 12 years old. One-quarter of those in first year were undecided about what they would do after graduation. When they were surveyed in fifth year, most planned to enter mixed private practice at least initially. In fact, 59% entered mixed practice and 28% small animal practice. there were no significant relationships between prior experience with animals and either career plans or success in the job market. When asked in their second year after graduation, about half planned to continue in private practice over the longer term, and a quarter were undecided., Conclusions: The decision to study veterinary science is often made at a young age, and is influenced mainly by attitudes towards animals. The career path planned by the majority involves private practice, but for about a quarter the future is unclear, both when they enter the course and after they have worked as veterinarians.