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Self-reports are integral to the understanding of a variety of behavioral phenomena, with arrest history being no exception. The current study investigated how accurate self-reports of arrest are when compared to official arrest records, and we also assessed several new predictors of self-report accuracy. In a sample of 339 former jail inmates, we examined agreement between self-reported arrests and official records. We also examined whether self-reported arrest accuracy was associated with substance use frequency and dependence, impression management, psychopathy, paranoia, criminal thinking, intelligence, and interview type (i.e., on time vs. delayed). Most (80%) participants accurately reported whether or not they had been arrested in the year following release from jail. Only one of 25 variables significantly predicted self-report accuracy: criminal thinking. Participants who scored low on criminal thinking were more likely than those who scored high on criminal thinking to under-report arrests. Discrepancies between self-reports and official records of arrests were unrelated to substance use frequency and dependence, impression management, paranoia, and intelligence. Results strongly support the validity of self-reported arrest data. • Most (80%) former inmates accurately self-reported arrests. • Criminal thinking was the only significant predictor of self-report accuracy. • Lower criminal thinking was related to under-reporting arrests. • 24 other examined variables were not significantly related to self-report accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Incarceration separates individuals from their families and communities, strictly limiting and controlling contact with the outside world. Despite these barriers, those who maintain contact with their families during incarceration tend to function more adaptively postrelease. Within a longitudinal framework, the current study examines mechanisms (i.e., family connectedness, postrelease planning) by which contact with family during incarceration may impact postrelease functioning (i.e., recidivism, substance misuse, mental illness, community functioning), considering differences between type of contact (visits, phone calls, letters) and whether it occurred in a jail or prison setting. Participants included 507 adults incarcerated in a local jail (Mage = 32 years, SD = 10 years; 70% male; 44.3% Black, 36.4% White; 59.5% parents). Structural equation modeling results demonstrated having more frequent contact with family during incarceration predicts increases in family connectedness, which in turn predicts better mental health during the first-year postrelease. Although not related to frequency of contact, making plans for postrelease predicted adaptive community functioning during the first-year postrelease. There were no differences in the overall model based on type of contact or incarceration in a jail versus prison setting. These findings suggest maintaining contact with family during incarceration can facilitate more psychologically healthy adjustment during the stressful process of reentering society. Furthermore, incarcerated individuals should be encouraged to make plans for postrelease while still incarcerated either independently or in collaboration with family. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study related to the psychometric evaluation of a simplified version of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS), in which item language was simplified but item content was preserved. It states that PICTS-SV is a valid alternative for assessing criminal thinking in inmates with low reading ability.

Purpose Some differential intervention frameworks contend that substance use is less robustly related to recidivism outcomes than other criminogenic needs such as criminal thinking. The current study tested the hypothesis that substance use disorder severity moderates the relationship between criminal thinking and recidivism. Methods The study utilized two independent criminal justice samples. Study 1 included 226 drug-involved probationers. Study 2 included 337 jail inmates with varying levels of substance use disorder severity. Logistic regression was employed to test the main and interactive effects of criminal thinking and substance use on multiple dichotomous indicators of recidivism. Results Bivariate analyses revealed a significant correlation between criminal thinking and recidivism in the jail sample ( r = .18, p < .05) but no significant relationship in the probation sample. Logistic regressions revealed that SUD symptoms moderated the relationship between criminal thinking and recidivism in the jail-based sample ( B = -.58, p < .05). A significant moderation effect was not observed in the probation sample. Conclusions Study findings indicate that substance use disorder symptoms moderate the strength of the association between criminal thinking and recidivism. These findings demonstrate the need for further research into the interaction between various dynamic risk factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Rates of mental illness among prisoners are substantial, but little is known about the unique mental health needs of women in jail, those under pre-trial custodial remand or serving short sentences. Aims To compare male and female jail inmates along a wide range of symptoms of mental illness using identical assessment methods, and to examine gender differences in treatment seeking before and during incarceration. Methods Soon after incarceration in a county jail, 360 male and 154 female pre-trial and post-trial inmates completed the Personality Assessment Inventory, a wide-ranging measure of psychiatric symptoms. Treatment seeking information was taken from official jail records. Results Women were more likely to report clinically significant symptoms of anxiety, borderline personality features, somatic concerns and trauma-related symptoms; however, trauma-related symptoms and borderline features were also common among male inmates. Although both men and women reported high rates of drug-related problems, alcohol-related problems were twice as prevalent among male inmates. Female inmates were more likely to seek and be enrolled in jail-based treatment; there were no differences in reported help seeking prior to incarceration. Conclusions Female jail inmates are especially in need of mental health services. Effective interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder and borderline personality disorder are needed in jail settings for both male and female inmates during incarceration and upon release. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychology is moving increasingly toward digital sources of data, with Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk) at the forefront of that charge. In 2015, up to an estimated 45% of articles published in the top behavioral and social science journals included at least one study conducted on MTurk. In this article, I summarize my own experience with MTurk and how I deduced that my sample was-at best-only 2.6% valid, by my estimate. I share these results as a warning and call for caution. Recently, I conducted an online study via Amazon's MTurk, eager and excited to collect my own data for the first time as a doctoral student. What resulted has prompted me to write this as a warning: it is indeed too good to be true. This is a summary of how I determined that, at best, I had gathered valid data from 14 human beings-2.6% of my participant sample ( N = 529).

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) and substance use disorders (SUDs) commonly co-occur across various settings. However, little research has examined how BPD features relate to specific types of SUDs. This study examined whether BPD features assessed shortly after incarceration were differentially related to symptoms of dependence on alcohol, cannabis, cocaine, and opioids experienced in the 12 months prior to incarceration among 510 people recently incarcerated in jail. Follow-up multigroup analyses evaluated whether gender or race moderated the relation of BPD features to the four SUDs. Using structural equational modeling, the relationships of BPD features were compared to each of the four preincarceration dependence symptoms. BPD features were significantly related to dependence on each of the four substances, but the link between BPD features and cocaine dependence was stronger than BPD's association with alcohol, cannabis, or opioid dependence. These findings generalized across men and women and across White and Black people.

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is common in jails and prisons. In a sample of 506 jail inmates (30% female), we examined whether BPD symptoms assessed upon incarceration predict subsequent institutional misconduct and treatment-seeking. BPD features modestly predicted occurrence (vs. nonoccurrence) of institutional misconduct. Importantly, BPD did not predict the number of institutional misconduct incidents. That is, BPD was not associated with frequent, repeated difficulties in institutional adjustment. Consistent with previous research showing a relationship between BPD and past treatment-seeking in clinical and community samples, jail inmates' BPD features significantly predicted subsequent requests for treatment. Regarding specific types of treatment, the relationship held for substance abuse programs and forensic mental health services but not for psychoeducational services or support groups. There were very few moderators of the link between BPD and subsequent institutional misconduct and treatment-seeking. Most of the observed relationships held across sex, race, and age. Findings of the study indicate that jail staff and clinicians must learn to distinguish between initial adjustment problems and frequent misconduct among inmates high in BPD to facilitate their adjustment. The study further highlights the need for BPD-relevant treatments and services in jails. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

This study assessed whether psychopathy and borderline personality disorder (BPD) symptoms are differentially related to three drinking motives: coping, enhancement, and social. Participants were 170 inmates (74% male) initially held on felony charges in a suburban jail. The Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV; Hart, Cox, & Hare, 1995) and Borderline Features scale of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991) were administered at the outset of incarceration. In a follow-up interview 4 to 6 years postincarceration, participants completed the Drinking Motives Questionnaire (DMQ; Cooper, Russell, Skinner, & Windle, 1992) assessing drinking motives. Controlling for drinking frequency, when compared to Factor 1 psychopathy, BPD symptoms had a stronger positive relationship with coping and enhancement drinking motives. No difference was observed for social motives for drinking. Individuals high in BPD symptoms may benefit from therapy emphasizing adaptive coping mechanisms and alternative means of seeking positive emotional states.

Suicidal behavior occurs at much higher rates in correctional facilities than in the community, yet little is known about factors that distinguish inmates at risk for attempting versus dying by suicide. Individuals in the current study included 925 inmates housed in 2 large U.S. jails and 8 state correctional systems who attempted (79.5%) or died by (20.5%) suicide for whom archival data were available. Mental health professionals completed a tracking sheet after suicide-related incidents, documenting inmate psychological, diagnostic, and treatment related risk factors. Differences between inmates who attempt versus those who die by suicide indicate that when mental health staff are aware of inmates' current and historical risk factors, deaths by suicide are less likely to occur. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).)

Those involved in the criminal justice system are swiftly identified as "criminals." Receipt of this label may promote self-stigma, a process wherein criminal stereotypes are internalized and produce negative psychological and behavioral consequences. Research has yet to identify which types of offenders are at risk for, or in contrast, protected from, experiencing self-stigma. The current study examines whether risk and protective factors predict multiple components of the self-stigma process (i.e., perceived stigma, stereotype agreement, internalized stigma, anticipated stigma) in a sample of male jail inmates ( N = 111). Results showed that mental health symptoms were a consistent risk factor across three of four self-stigma components, whereas antisocial characteristics were a risk factor for stereotype agreement and internalized stigma. Self-esteem was a protective factor for internalized and anticipated stigma. Implications for preventing self-stigma among offenders are discussed.

Research on changes in community integration from pre- to postincarceration has primarily focused on employment and is mixed, showing both deterioration and improvement. Research is needed to examine change in other areas, as well as predictive individual-level factors. We assessed changes in jail inmates' ( n = 334) employment, source of income, residential stability, marital status, and volunteerism from pre- to post-incarceration, and analyzed individual-level predictors of change. On average, more inmates improved than deteriorated in community integration, with education and low criminal thinking predicting the greatest improvement. Across multiple areas, inmates' community integration does not appear to deteriorate from pre- to post-incarceration. Apparent improvements may reflect that people become incarcerated during times of crisis, regressing to baseline by 1 year postrelease., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Regulating emotions, refraining from impulsive, maladaptive behavior, and communicating effectively are considered primary treatment needs among jail inmates. Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT; Linehan, 1993a) skills address these deficits and have been implemented in long-term correctional settings, but have yet to be adapted for general population inmates in short-term jail settings. This study assessed the feasibility and acceptability of a DBT skills group in a jail setting, as well as its utility in improving coping skills and emotional/behavioral dysregulation. Male jail inmates participated in an 8-week DBT skills group and completed pre- and posttest assessments of coping skills, emotional/behavioral dysregulation, and measures of treatment acceptability. Out of 27 who started therapy, 16 completed it, primarily due to involuntary attrition such as transfer to another correctional facility. Although several logistical issues arose during this pilot study, preliminary results suggest that a brief DBT skills group is feasible and acceptable in a jail setting, and may improve coping skills and reduce externalization of blame among general population jail inmates. This study lays the groundwork for larger, controlled trials of abbreviated DBT skills groups for general population inmates in short-term jail settings. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).)

In recent years, mindfulness-based interventions have been modified for use with inmate populations, but how this might relate to specific criminogenic cognitions has not been examined empirically. Theoretically, characteristics of mindfulness should be incompatible with distorted patterns of criminal thinking, but is this in fact the case? Among both 259 male jail inmates and 516 undergraduates, mindfulness was inversely related to the Criminogenic Cognitions Scale (CCS) through a latent variable of emotion regulation. However, in the jail sample, this mediational model also showed a direct, positive path from mindfulness to CCS, with an analogous, but nonsignificant trend in the college sample. Post hoc analyses indicate that the Nonjudgment of Self scale derived from the Mindfulness Inventory: Nine Dimensions (MI:ND) largely accounts for this apparently iatrogenic effect in both samples. Some degree of self-judgment is perhaps necessary and useful, especially among individuals involved in the criminal justice system.

This study pilot-tested a values and mindfulness-based intervention (Re-Entry Values and Mindfulness Program: REVAMP) in a sample of male jail inmates. REVAMP aimed to reduce post-release risky behavior by targeting dimensions of mindfulness (e.g., willingness/acceptance) and associated proximal outcomes/mechanisms of action (emotion regulation, self-control, shame/guilt). Inmates were randomly assigned to REVAMP (n=21) or treatment as usual (TAU, n=19). Attendance and feedback supported REVAMP's feasibility and acceptability. At post-treatment, ANCOVAs showed that the REVAMP group increased more on willingness/acceptance, self-judgment and shame relative to TAU. Relative increases in willingness/acceptance persisted at 3-month post-release. Criminal activity was assessed by self-report at three months post-release and official criminal records at three years post-release. At both time-points, there was a marginally statistically significant trend of medium effect size for lower criminal recidivism in the REVAMP group compared to TAU. There were no statistically significant differences in self-reported post-release substance misuse. This pilot RCT indicated mindfulness-based interventions may hold promise for reducing inmates' post-release risky behavior and encourages future research in this area., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

People with concealable stigmatized identities, such as a criminal record, often anticipate stigma from others. Anticipated stigma is thought to cause withdrawal from situations in which there is the potential for discrimination, which then negatively impacts behavior and functioning. This may have implications for offenders reentering the community, possibly hindering community integration and encouraging maladaptive behavior postrelease. Drawing upon a sample of 197 male jail inmates, we examine a theoretical model in which anticipated stigma during incarceration predicts behavioral outcomes 1 year after release from jail (i.e., recidivism, substance use disorder symptoms, mental health symptoms, community adjustment) through social withdrawal. Anticipated stigma during incarceration predicted social withdrawal three months postrelease, which then predicted more mental health problems 1 year postrelease. Stigma resistance and optimism buffered the effect of anticipated stigma on social withdrawal. Race moderated multiple paths in the model, suggesting that the relations between anticipated stigma, social withdrawal, and adjustment are more pronounced for White offenders.

The notion that high psychopathy inmates seek treatment for non-therapeutic reasons is frequently assumed but lacking empirical evidence. In a sample of 217 suburban jail inmates, we examined whether psychopathy differentially predicted treatment-seeking during incarceration (when extrinsic benefits exist), but not post-release. Overall, analyses revealed no evidence to support this notion. High psychopathy offenders did not artificially seek treatment at a higher rate than their less psychopathic peers during or following incarceration. Further, there was no evidence psychopathy was associated with treatment-seeking for present-oriented reasons (e.g., to reduce their sentence) during incarceration. Inmates high in psychopathy, particularly Factor 1, were more likely to request access to the jail law library than their lower-psychopathy peers. Taken together, these findings challenge common assumptions regarding psychopathic offenders' treatment-seeking behaviors and motivations. Clinicians can anticipate that inmates seeking treatment will represent the full range of psychopathy, both during incarceration and upon rejoining the community.

Purpose: To assess changes in inmates' misuse of substances from pre- to post-incarceration., Methods: In Study 1, professionals ( n = 162) and laypersons ( n = 50) predicted how jail inmates' substance misuse would change from pre-incarceration to post-release. In Study 2, a longitudinal study of 305 jail inmates, we examined actual changes in substance use and dependence from pre-incarceration to the first year post-incarceration, as well as whether changes varied as a function of demographic, criminal justice, treatment, and personality factors., Results: Professionals and laypersons predicted little change in substance misuse whereas, in fact, inmates' frequency of substance use and dependence decreased substantially from pre-incarceration to post-release. Sharper decreases were observed for inmates who were female, younger, more educated, serving longer sentences, enrolled in substance abuse treatment, high in shame-proneness, and low in criminogenic thinking. Race, first time incarceration, transfer to other correctional facilities, mandated community supervision (probation), and guilt-proneness did not predict changes in substance use or dependence., Conclusions: Although substance misuse decreased, this remains a population high in need of substance abuse treatment both upon arrest and at one year post-incarceration; 60% of former inmates met at least one DSM-IV criterion for substance dependence at one year post-release.

The present study explored the relationship between borderline personality disorder (BPD) features and preincarceration HIV risk behaviors in a sample of 499 (70% male) jail inmates, as well as gender differences in these associations. Elevated levels of BPD symptomatology were present among male and female participants, though there was considerable variance observed in participants' BPD symptoms and HIV risk behaviors. In the full sample, BPD features were positively associated with a variety of HIV risk behaviors, including injection drug use and frequency of unprotected sex with high risk partners and under high risk circumstances. Gender moderated only 2 relationships between BPD features and HIV risk behaviors, with a stronger association between BPD features and number of sexual partners, and BPD features and frequency of unprotected sex while under the influence of alcohol or drugs for women, relative to men. Taken together, these findings suggest that programs targeting HIV risk within correctional populations may benefit from considering the role of BPD features, particularly emotion regulation difficulties and impulsivity, in influencing HIV risk behaviors among both women and men., ((c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved).)

Body shame is described as central in clinical literature on body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). However, empirical investigations of body shame within BDD are rare. One potential reason for the scarcity of such research may be that existing measures of body shame focus on eating and weight-based content. Within BDD, however, body shame likely focuses more broadly on shame felt in response to perceived appearance flaws in one's body parts. We describe the development and validation of the Body-Focused Shame and Guilt Scale (BF-SGS), a measure of BDD-relevant body shame, across two studies: a two time-point study of undergraduates, and a follow-up study in two Internet-recruited clinical samples (BDD, obsessive compulsive disorder) and healthy controls. Across both studies, the BF-SGS shame subscale demonstrated strong reliability and construct validity, with Study 2 providing initial clinical norms.

Do shame and guilt help people avoid doing wrong? Although some research suggests that guilt-proneness is a protective factor while shame-proneness puts individuals at risk, most research is either cross-sectional or short-term. In this longitudinal study, 380 5th graders (ages 10-12) completed measures of proneness to shame and guilt. We re-interviewed 68 % of participants after they turned 18 years old (range 18-21). Guilt-proneness assessed in childhood predicted fewer sexual partners, less use of illegal drugs and alcohol, and less involvement with the criminal justice system. Shame-proneness, in contrast, was a risk factor for later deviant behavior. Shame-prone children were more likely to have unprotected sex and use illegal drugs in young adulthood. These results held when controlling for childhood SES and teachers' ratings of aggression. Children's moral emotional styles appear to be well established by at least middle childhood, with distinct downstream implications for risky behavior in early adulthood.

Psychological research using mostly cross-sectional methods calls into question the presumed function of shame as an inhibitor of immoral or illegal behavior. In a longitudinal study of 476 jail inmates, we assessed shame proneness, guilt proneness, and externalization of blame shortly after incarceration. We interviewed participants (N = 332) 1 year after release into the community, and we accessed official arrest records (N = 446). Guilt proneness negatively and directly predicted reoffense in the 1st year after release; shame proneness did not. Further mediational modeling showed that shame proneness positively predicted recidivism via its robust link to externalization of blame. There remained a direct effect of shame on recidivism: Unimpeded by defensive externalization of blame, shame inhibited recidivism. Items assessing a motivation to hide were primarily responsible for this pattern. Overall, our results suggest that the pain of shame may have two faces-one with destructive potential and the other with constructive potential.

Individuals cycling in and out of the criminal justice system are at high risk for contracting HIV/AIDS. Most infections are contracted in the community, not during incarceration, but little is known about the profile of risk behaviors responsible for this elevated infection rate. This study investigated pre-incarceration and post-release HIV risk behaviors in a longitudinal study of 542 male and female inmates in a Northern Virginia jail. Although there was a significant decrease in risky behavior from pre-incarceration to post-incarceration, participants reported high levels of unprotected sexual activity and risky IV drug behaviors at both time points, emphasizing the need for prevention programming among this at-risk population. Gender differences in participants' pre-incarceration and post-release HIV risk behaviors suggest the need for gender-specific interventions to reduce overall HIV risk. Identifying specific HIV risk behaviors of jail inmates is vital to improve treatment and intervention efforts inside and outside of correctional settings.

Theory suggests that shame should be positively related to aggression while guilt may serve as a protective factor. Little research has examined mediators between the moral emotions and aggression. Results using path analyses in four diverse samples were consistent with a model of no direct relationship between shame-proneness and aggression. There was, however, a significant indirect relationship through externalization of blame, but mostly when aggression was measured using self-report. Guilt-proneness, on the other hand, showed a direct negative relationship to aggression whether using self-report or other reports of aggression. Guilt was also inversely related to aggression indirectly through externalization of blame and empathy. Identifying these differing mechanisms may be useful in developing more effective interventions for aggressive individuals.

Whites in community samples utilize mental health services at a much higher rate than African Americans (Kessler, et al., 2005). Is this also the case among those in jails? In this study of jail inmates (229 African American, 185 White) there were no race difference in the overall need for mental health treatment (63% of participants had significant symptoms on the Personality Assessment Inventory) but race differences in the level and types of symptoms were evident. Additionally, while Whites were more likely to report pre-incarceration treatment there were no differences in treatment seeking or access to mental health programs while in jail, implying that if barriers to treatment in the community were removed (cost/insurance, location/transportation, time) racial disparities in treatment utilization may be reduced.

The focus of this article is on the examination of variables that moderate the influence of exposure to TV violence. The research on the relationship between TV violence and aggressive behavior of the audience has largely focused on addressing the social policy issue of whether witnessing TV violence fosters aggressive behavior in viewers, particularly children. There has been a dearth of research addressing the conditions that enhance the aggression stimulating effects of media violence, those that mitigate these effects, and those that may even result in reduced aggression after one witnesses media violence. To illustrate the importance of potential moderating factors, we present longitudinal correlational data relating the degree of viewing TV violence to various social behaviors and cognitive attributes of White and African-American male and female elementary-school-age children. Although TV violence viewing was associated with lower cognitive attributes and negative social behaviors in White males and females and African-American females, a very different pattern of relationships was found for African-American males., (© 2008 Association for Psychological Science.)

The authors examined the association between psychopathy and identification of facial expressions of emotion. Previous research in this area is scant and has produced contradictory findings (Blair et. al., 2001, 2004; Glass & Newman, 2006; Kosson et al., 2002). One hundred and forty-five male jail inmates, rated using the Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version participated in a facial affect recognition task. Participants were shown faces containing one of five emotions (happiness, sadness, fear, anger, or shame) displayed at one of two different levels of intensity of expression (100% or 60%). The authors predicted that psychopathy would be associated with decreased affect recognition, particularly for sad and fearful emotional expressions, and decreased recognition of less intense displays of facial affect. Results were largely consistent with expectations in that psychopathy was negatively correlated with overall facial recognition of affect, sad facial affect, and recognition of less intense displays of affect. An unexpected negative correlation with recognition of happy facial affect was also found. These results suggest that psychopathy may be associated with a general deficit in affect recognition.

This paper describes our attempt to import social-personality theory and research on moral emotions and moral cognitions to applied problems of crime, substance abuse, and HIV risk behavior. Thus far, in an inmate sample, we have evidence that criminogenic beliefs and proneness to guilt are each predictive of re-offense after release from jail. In addition, we have evidence that jail programs and services may reduce criminogenic beliefs and enhance adaptive feelings of guilt. As our sample size increases, our next step is to test the full mediational model, examining the degree to which programs and services impact post-release desistance via their effect on moral emotions and cognitions. In addition to highlighting some of the key findings from our longitudinal study of jail inmates over the period of incarceration and post-release, we describe the origins and development of this interdisciplinary project, highlighting the challenges and rewards of such endeavors.

Moral emotions represent a key element of our human moral apparatus, influencing the link between moral standards and moral behavior. This chapter reviews current theory and research on moral emotions. We first focus on a triad of negatively valenced "self-conscious" emotions-shame, guilt, and embarrassment. As in previous decades, much research remains focused on shame and guilt. We review current thinking on the distinction between shame and guilt, and the relative advantages and disadvantages of these two moral emotions. Several new areas of research are highlighted: research on the domain-specific phenomenon of body shame, styles of coping with shame, psychobiological aspects of shame, the link between childhood abuse and later proneness to shame, and the phenomena of vicarious or "collective" experiences of shame and guilt. In recent years, the concept of moral emotions has been expanded to include several positive emotions-elevation, gratitude, and the sometimes morally relevant experience of pride. Finally, we discuss briefly a morally relevant emotional process-other-oriented empathy.

What good is self-control? We incorporated a new measure of individual differences in self-control into two large investigations of a broad spectrum of behaviors. The new scale showed good internal consistency and retest reliability. Higher scores on self-control correlated with a higher grade point average, better adjustment (fewer reports of psychopathology, higher self-esteem), less binge eating and alcohol abuse, better relationships and interpersonal skills, secure attachment, and more optimal emotional responses. Tests for curvilinearity failed to indicate any drawbacks of so-called overcontrol, and the positive effects remained after controlling for social desirability. Low self-control is thus a significant risk factor for a broad range of personal and interpersonal problems.