Search

This study explored the effects of overt and covert verbalization instructions on problem solving in high school subjects. A series of three-circle problems were administered to groups instructed to either (1) say a reason for each move they made (overt verbalization), (2) think of a reason for each move as if they were going to say it (covert verbalization), or (3) work the problems silently (control). Consistent with previous findings, subjects instructed to overtly verbalize were superior to control subjects on a transfer task requiring no overt verbalization. No significant differences, however, were observed between overt and covert verbalizers. This finding was interpreted to indicate that, in adults, covert verbalization can be as effective in mediating problem solving behavior as talking aloud. It was suggested that this may not hold true for children, however. (For related document, see PS 005 424.) (Author)

The frequency theory of verbal discrimination learning makes no distinction between silent and spoken rehearsal. Further, the frequency theory predicts that the study-test method of list presentation is superior to the anticipation method. College students, performing under silent and spoken rehearsal conditions, learned 16 low-frequency word-pairs with the anticipation or the study-test method. It was found that spoken rehearsal was superior to silent rehearsal, and that method of presentation was not significant. However, in the spoken rehearsal conditions, a trend toward the predicted differences between the two presentation methods was observed. It was suggested that these findings indicate that spoken rehearsal insures the rehearsal of the correct response, and that silent rehearsers probably do not silently pronounce the correct response to themselves. Implications for the role of spoken rehearsal in verbal discrimination learning were discussed. (For related document, see PS 005 425.) (Author)

CURRENT MODELS OF DECISION-MAKING AND RELATED RESEARCH IN CONNECTION WITH CERTAIN DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS OF ADOLESCENTS WERE REVIEWED. THE DECISION ELEMENTS RECEIVING THEORETICAL ATTENTION WERE (1) DECISION-PROCESS PHASES, (2) DECISION-OUTCOME PROBABILITIES AND STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS, (3) DECISION-PLAN DIMENSIONS, (4) DECISION STRATEGIES, AND (5) DECIDER TRAITS, NEEDS, DRIVES, AND SOCIAL CONTEXT. VOCATIONAL MATURITY AND DEVELOPMENTAL READINESS WERE DISCUSSED IN RELATION TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT, DYNAMIC DECISION PROCESSES, PERSONALITY FACTORS, AND TYPES OF DECIDERS. A REVIEW OF ADOLESCENT COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT INDICATED THAT IT WAS A CONTINUOUS AND TENTATIVE PROCESS AND FREQUENTLY WAS BASED ON MORE PSYCHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS THAN LOGICAL ONES. IN ADDITION, MANY STAGE TASKS CALLED FOR AND WOULD BE ENHANCED BY A GROWING COMPETENCE IN DECISION-MAKING. (GC)

THIS COURSE OUTLINE ON METAL FORMING AND FABRICATION IS PART OF THE FINAL REPORT ON "CLUSTER CONCEPT" COURSES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION (ED 010 301). EACH JOB ENTRY TASK WAS ANALYZED FOR HUMAN REQUIREMENTS (COMMUNICATION,MEASUREMENT, MATHEMATICS, SCIENCE, SKILLS, AND INFORMATION) NECESSARY TO PERFORMANCE OF THE TASK. THE TASK STATEMENTS FOR MACHINING, WELDING, SHEET METAL WORK, AND ASSEMBLY WERE WRITTEN IN BEHAVIORAL TERMS WHICH PROVIDE THE INSTRUCTOR WITH A DESCRIPTION OF WHAT THE STUDENT SHOULD BE ABLE TO DO AFTER HE HAS HAD THE LEARNING EXPERIENCE. INSTRUCTIONAL SEQUENCES WERE PROVIDED AT THE END OF THE TASK ANALYSIS SECTION TO AID THE TEACHER IN DEVELOPING LESSON PLANS, MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION, AND VISUAL AIDS. (FOR OTHER COURSE OUTLINES SEE ED 010 302 AND ED 010 303.) (GC)

THIS COURSE OUTLINE ON ELECTROMECHANICAL INSTALLATION AND REPAIR IS PART OF THE FINAL REPORT ON "CLUSTER CONCEPT" COURSES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION (ED 010 301). EACH JOB ENTRY TASK WAS ANALYZED FOR HUMAN REQUIREMENTS (COMMUNICATION, MEASUREMENT, MATHEMATICS, SCIENCE, SKILLS, AND INFORMATION) NECESSARY TO PERFORMANCE OF THE TASK. THE TASK STATEMENTS FOR SERVICING OF AIR CONDITIONING AND REFRIGERATION, BUSINESS MACHINES, HOME APPLIANCES, AND RADIO AND TELEVISION WERE WRITTEN IN BEHAVIORAL TERMS WHICH PROVIDE THE INSTRUCTOR WITH A DESCRIPTION OF WHAT THE STUDENT SHOULD BE ABLE TO DO AFTER HE HAS HAD THE LEARNING EXPERIENCE. INSTRUCTIONAL SEQUENCES WERE PROVIDED AT THE END OF THE TASK ANALYSIS SECTION TO AID THE TEACHER IN DEVELOPING LESSON PLANS, MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION, AND VISUAL AIDS. (FOR OTHER COURSE OUTLINES SEE ED 010 302 AND ED 010 304.) (GC)

THIS COURSE OUTLINE IN CONSTRUCTION IS PART OF THE FINAL REPORT ON "CLUSTER CONCEPT" COURSES IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION (ED 010 301). EACH JOB ENTRY TASK WAS ANALYZED FOR HUMAN REQUIREMENTS (COMMUNICATION, MEASUREMENT, MATHEMATICS, SCIENCE, SKILLS, AND INFORMATION) NECESSARY TO PERFORMANCE OF THE TASK. THE TASK STATEMENTS FOR CARPENTRY, ELECTRICITY, MASONRY, PAINTING, AND PLUMBING WERE WRITTEN IN BEHAVIORAL TERMS WHICH PROVIDE THE INSTRUCTOR WITH A DESCRIPTION OF WHAT THE STUDENT SHOULD BE ABLE TO DO AFTER HE HAS HAD THE LEARNING EXPERIENCE. INSTRUCTIONAL SEQUENCES WERE PROVIDED AT THE END OF THE TASK ANALYSIS SECTION TO AID THE TEACHER IN DEVELOPING LESSON PLANS, MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION, AND VISUAL AIDS. (FOR OTHER COURSE OUTLINES SEE ED 010 303 AND ED 010 304.) (GC)

THE INVESTIGATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CLUSTER CONCEPT AS A PROGRAM IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AT THE SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL WERE REPORTED. THE "CLUSTER CONCEPT" PROGRAM IS AIMED AT THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKILLS AND UNDERSTANDINGS RELATED TO A NUMBER OF ALLIED FIELDS, AND WOULD PREPARE THE PERSON TO ENTER INTO A FAMILY OF OCCUPATIONS RATHER THAN A SPECIFIC OCCUPATION. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE IN THE AREAS OF EDUCATION, LABOR, ECONOMICS, AND INDUSTRY HAS ESTABLISHED THE NEED FOR THIS TYPE OF PROGRAM. THE SUMMARIES WERE PRESENTED IN THREE SECTIONS--(1) APPROPRIATENESS OF THE CLUSTER CONCEPT PROGRAM, (2) DEVELOPMENT OF OCCUPATIONAL CLUSTERS, AND (3) DEVELOPMENT OF COURSE OUTLINES. (FOR THE COURSE OUTLINES SEE ED 010 303, ED 010 302, AND ED 010 304.) (GC)

THIS RESEARCH ATTEMPTED TO RELATE PROBLEM-SOLVING BEHAVIOR TO LANGUAGE BY FINDING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN (1) PROBLEM SOLVING AND LANGUAGE TYPE AND (2) PROBLEM SOLVING AND CATEGORIES OF BILINGUALISM. ENGLISH-SPEAKING MONOLINGUAL AND TYPES OF BILINGUAL NAVAHO EIGHTH-GRADE PUPILS WERE COMPARED ON PROBLEM-SOLVING TASKS. IQ AND READING COMPREHENSION WERE CONTROLLED. FINDINGS INDICATED THAT THE COMPOUND BILINGUALS DID LESS WELL THAN COORDINATE BILINGUALS AND ENGLISH-SPEAKING MONOLINGUALS, BUT THAT THERE WAS NO DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE COORDINATE BILINGUALS AND THE MONOLINGUALS. DIFFERENCES WERE EXPLAINED IN TERMS OF OSGOOD'S TWO-STAGE MEDIATION MODEL AND INTERFERENCE. IMPLICATIONS FOR THE LANGUAGE TRAINING OF BILINGUALS WERE MENTIONED. (GD)

THE GENERAL PROBLEM UNDER INVESTIGATION CONCERNED TWO PROCESSES OF CONCEPT FORMATION - THE DEDUCTIVE REASONING PROCESS AND THE ASSOCIATIVE PROCESS - EMPLOYED BY CHILDREN OF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL AGE. IT WAS ASSUMED THAT BOTH OF THESE PROCESSES ARE FOUND IN VARYING DEGREES AMONG CHILDREN OF DIFFERENT AGES AND MENTAL ABILITIES, DEPENDING UPON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARTICULAR TASK. THE FIRST TWO EXPERIMENTS WERE CONCERNED WITH THE INTERACTION OF BOTH OF THESE PROCESSES IN A CONCEPT FORMATION TASK, WHILE SUBSEQUENT EXPERIMENTS REPRESENTED AN ATTEMPT TO FOCUS UPON THE ASSOCIATIVE PROCESS BY STUDYING ITS OPERATION IN A VARIETY OF SITUATIONS. CONSISTENT INDICATIONS APPEARED THAT, WHEN LARGE AND SMALL VARIETIES ARE EQUAL IN STRENGTH, A SMALL VARIETY IS LIKELY TO PROMOTE CONCEPT ATTAINMENT TO A GREATER EXTENT THAN A LARGE VARIETY. IT WAS ALSO FOUND THAT IT IS POSSIBLE TO CONSIDER THE ROLE OF VARIETY IN THE ATTAINMENT OF CONCEPTS AS A FUNCTION OF THE DEDUCTIVE AND ASSOCIATIVE PROCESSES WHICH CAN BE ASSUMED TO OCCUR, ALTHOUGH IN VARYING DEGREES, AS A FUNCTION OF THE DEMANDS OF THE TASK AND SUBJECT CHARACTERISTICS. (GD)

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

Reported was a program designed to explore the remediation of motor problems among minimally brain damaged children. In an initial testing session the children were exposed to a six category test of gross motor functioning, the first part of the Frostig Developmental Test of Visual Perception, a self concept test, a games choice test, and other tasks designed for the subjective evaluation of motor function. Children participated in classes which exposed them to tasks which both were taxing but able to be performed, as well as to tasks which were stressful to a slight degree. Conclusions such as the following were drawn: younger children with slight problems are most amenable to change; approximately 80% of the children referred were males; and hand eye control is improvable not only with the application of remedial measures involving practice, but also with the application of medication in hyperactive children. (GW)

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN RISK TAKING WERE STUDIED IN A SAMPLE OF 162 MIDDLE-CLASS CHILDREN IN GRADE 5. MEASURES OF ANXIETY, CREATIVITY, DEFENSIVENESS, INTELLIGENCE, AND RISK TAKING WERE ANALYZED TO DETERMINE CERTAIN SELECTED RELATIONSHIPS. THE AUTHOR CONCLUDED THAT CREATIVITY BEARS A MORE POWERFUL RELATIONSHIP TO RISK TAKING THAN DOES INTELLIGENCE. (JK)

The third of four booklets on residential programing for the mentally retarded is intended to help parents evaluate residential services and participate in decisions about program design and implementation. Areas of appropriate program emphasis are indicated for different age groups and for the various degrees of mental retardation from profound to mild. Tasks listed for the preschool aged, school aged, and adults focus on such areas as sensorimotor development and integration, self care, and speech development. General programing principles in the areas of building design, behavioral objectives, training, record keeping, and inservice education are discussed. To show the full range of development within a skill area, stages of the following skills are discussed: eating, dressing, toilet training, bathing, communication, academics, work training, community living, recreation. Special problems of multiply handicapped residents (physical disabilities, epilepsy, visual and aural disabilities) are examined. Check lists are provided for the tasks and skill areas to facilitate evaluation by parents and personnel. For instance, check list items on dressing ask whether residents are encouraged to complete more of dressing tasks until independence is achieved and whether residents participate daily in the selection of clothes to be worn. (For related information, see EC 050 051, EC 050 052, and EC 050 054.) (GW)

THE VALUE OF YOUNG CHILDREN VOCALIZING DURING A PROBLEM-SOLVING TASK WAS STUDIED. IN A 2-DAY INVESTIGATION, SIXTY 4-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN WERE TRAINED INDIVIDUALLY TO SELECT THE CORRECT ONE OF THREE PICTURES DIFFERING ONLY IN SIZE. THE CHILDREN WERE DIVIDED RANDOMLY INTO A LABELING GROUP AND A NONLABELING GROUP. CHILDREN IN THE LABELING GROUP WERE REQUIRED TO OVERTLY VERBALIZE RELEVANT LABELS DURING THIS SELECTIVE LEARNING TASK. THEY PERFORMED SIGNIFICANTLY BETTER DURING TRAINING AND ON A POST-TEST THAN CHILDREN WHO SAW THE SAME STIMULI BUT WERE GIVEN NO LABELING TRANING. THIS FINDING WAS NOT VERIFIED IN AN 8-DAY INVESTIGATION WHERE THE PRESENTATION OF STIMULUS MATERIALS AND VERBAL INSTRUCTIONS WAS ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLLED. SEVENTY-TWO 5-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN WERE DIVIDED RANDOMLY BETWEEN LABELING AND NONLABELING GROUPS AND GIVEN TRAINING ON A SELECTIVE LEARNING TASK INVOLVING MATERIALS DIFFERING IN SIZE, THICKNESS, LENGTH, AND COLOR VALUE. CHILDREN IN THE LABELING GROUP WERE REQUIRED TO LEARN FOUR SETS OF RELEVANT LABELS. ON THE POST-TEST, WHERE NO CHILDREN WERE INSTRUCTED TO VERBALIZE, NO DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE WERE FOUND BETWEEN THE LABELING AND NONLABELING GROUPS. ALL CHILDREN PERFORMED CONSISTENTLY WORSE WHEN THE INTERMEDIATE SIZE PICTURE WAS THE CORRECT STIMULUS. A PILOT STUDY ALSO DEMONSTRATED THE POSSIBLE INTERFERING EFFECTS OF LANGUAGE. (RS)

AN ATTEMPT WAS MADE TO CLARIFY RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TWO VARIABLES TAKEN FROM TWO MAJOR CLASSES--A VARIABLE RELATED TO CONDITIONS OF LEARNING AND A STIMULUS VARIABLE. SPECIFICALLY, THE STUDY DEALT WITH CONCEPT ATTAINMENT BY INDIVIDUALS AND IDENTIFIED THROUGH FIGURAL OR VERBAL INSTANCES. PERFORMANCE WAS ASSESSED WITH FIVE DEPENDENT VARIABLES--TIME TO CRITERION, TOTAL NUMBER OF CARD CHOICES, NUMBER OF CARD CHOICES TO THE FIRST HYPOTHESIS, NUMBER OF HYPOTHESES OFFERED, AND NUMBER OF ATTRIBUTES CHECKED TO THE FIRST HYPOTHESIS. IT WAS FOUND THAT PAIRS WERE IN GENERAL EQUAL OR SUPERIOR TO INDIVIDUALS IN ATTAINING CONCEPTS. SUBJECTS USING FIGURAL MATERIAL WERE EQUAL TO OR BETTER THAN THOSE USING VERBAL MATERIAL IN ATTAINING CONCEPTS. WHEN ORDINAL POSITION OF THE CONCEPT IN THE SEQUENCE WAS PLOTTED AGAINST THREE DEPENDENT VARIABLES, IT WAS FOUND THAT PERFORMANCE WAS POOREST ON THE FIRST CONCEPT, THAT IT IMPROVED MARKEDLY ON THE SECOND, AND THAT IMPROVEMENT CONTINUED FOR THE THIRD AND FOURTH CONCEPT, BUT AT A SLOWER RATE. PROBLEM SEQUENCES LED TO DIFFERENCES IN PERFORMANCE AS MEASURED BY TIME TO CRITERION AND NUMBER OF HYPOTHESES OFFERED. ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS ARE SUGGESTED TO ACCOUNT FOR THE RESULTS. (JC)

AN EXPERIMENT WAS CONDUCTED TO DETERMINE THE FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SUCH VARIABLES AS TYPE OF MATERIAL, NUMBER OF RELEVANT ATTRIBUTES, AND PERFORMANCE OF A PERSON ATTAINING CONCEPTS. CONCEPT ATTAINMENT BOARDS OF THE BRUNER (1956) TYPE WERE USED, AND VARIOUS PARAMETERS CONTAINED IN THE BOARDS WERE MANIPULATED. THE NUMBER OF RELEVANT AND IRRELEVANT ATTRIBUTES IN A CONCEPT WAS VARIED. INSTRUCTION, THE TYPE OF PROBLEM, PROBLEM ORDER, AND THE TYPE OF BOARD (FIGURAL OR VERBAL) WERE ALSO TREATED AS VARIABLES. INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE TASK WERE EITHER GIVEN TO THE 64 FEMALE AND 48 MALE SUBJECTS BY A TAPE RECORDING OR FROM A BOOKLET. FOUR DISTINCT SEQUENCES OF CONCEPTS WERE DEVELOPED AND EACH SEQUENCE WAS USED WITH SIX MALES AND EIGHT FEMALES. THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES WERE TIME-TO-CRITERION AND NUMBER OF CARD CHOICES. RESULTS FROM THE VERBAL CONCEPTS SHOWED THAT SEX, INSTRUCTIONS, AND CONCEPT ORDER HAD NO SIGNIFICANT EFFECT. THE J-2 CONCEPTS (COMBINATIONS OF TWO) WERE EASIER THAN THE J-3, (COMBINATIONS OF THREE) AND RECEPTION CONCEPTS WERE EASIER THAN SELECTION CONCEPTS. ON THE TWO TRAINING CONCEPTS, THE J-3 CONCEPT WAS EASIER THAN THE J-2 BOTH IN TERMS OF TIME AND NUMBER OF CARD CHOICES. IT WAS HYPOTHESIZED THAT UNUSUAL RESULTS OBTAINED FROM THE FIGURAL BOARD CONCEPT WERE DUE TO THE SALIENCE LEVELS OF THE ATTRIBUTES. IT WAS FURTHER HYPOTHESIZED THAT ANY ANALYSIS OF CONCEPT MUST CONSIDER NUMBER OF RELEVANT AND IRRELEVANT ATTRIBUTES AND THE SALIENCE LEVEL. (JC)

THE IMPACT OF TWO TREATMENTS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES ON THE ABILITIES OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN WERE STUDIED. THE LEARNING EXPERIENCES INVOLVED PRINCIPLES OF HAPTIC (TACTUAL) PERCEPTION IN THE PERFORMANCE OF VARIOUS TASKS. CHILDREN, AGES 3 THROUGH 5, FROM HIGH AND LOW ECONOMIC LEVELS WERE SELECTED AS SUBJECTS. AN ANALYSIS WAS MADE OF THEIR HAPTIC PERCEPTION ABILITIES WHEN GIVEN INSTRUCTION, EITHER INDIVIDUALLY OR IN A GROUP. THEY WERE PRE- AND POST-TESTED IN FIVE AREAS OF HAPTIC ABILITY. DATA WERE ANALYZED BY F-RATIO AND CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS. THE 0.05 LEVEL INDICATED SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MEANS AND FOR THE CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS. THE RESULTS INDICATED A NUMBER OF IDENTIFIABLE AND MEASURABLE VARIABLES WHICH PLAY AN IMPORTANT PART IN THE CHILD'S PERFORMANCE. HOWEVER, THE INSTRUCTION TREATMENTS DID NOT DIFFER SIGNIFICANTLY. (RS)

The development of certain concepts of music in kindergarten, first, and second grade children was researched. Objectives of the study were: (1) To measure the effect of four instructional modes on the performance of tasks which embodied certain musical concepts; (2) To measure the performance differences between age levels; and (3) To measure and evaluate young children's concepts of louder, faster, higher, and shorter as elicited by the measuring instrument. Two forms of a measuring instrument were developed. Each form contained several tests which measured a specific concept. Each test consisted of 20 items or tasks with each task displaying positive and negative instances of the concept. The subject was asked to identify the "different," i.e. negative, instance of each set. Two independent samples were drawn from public and parochial schools of Lincoln, Nebraska, and the surrounding region. Instructional modes used were designated discovery, verbal cue, verbal response, and motor response. There were significant differences in performance between tests which embodied different concepts. It was concluded that the level of performance is a function of the stimulus features of the task and the accessibility of the concept. Other conclusions are: (1) Performance on tasks is partly a function of age; and (2) There is usually no significant effect of the instructional mode when a concept is not readily available as in the case of higher. Further research is recommended. (Author/CK)

An assessment was made of 5- and 8-year-old children's performance on a short-term memory task under two auditory and two visual distraction conditions, as well as under a nondistraction condition. Performance under nondistraction was found to be superior to that under distraction (p<.001), indicating that the extraneous stimuli had a generally detrimental effect on performance. The comparison between nondistraction and distraction did not interact significantly with age, suggesting little developmental change in distractibility over this age range. The data also indicated a reduction in the effects of the distractors following their initial presentation, implying an adaption to the presence of extraneous stimulation. (Author/DB)

The effects of two social contexts on the risk -taking behavior of elementary boys on a shuffleboard task were investigated. It was predicted that Atkinson's motive-probability-incentive (M-P-I) model would be supported in the peer-competitive context, in that the success-oriented subjects would choose more goals with median Ps values than the failure-avoidant subjects, but that these two groups would not differ in this regard in the adult-evaluative context. These hypotheses were supported. A test was also made of Atkinson's recent prediction that performance will relate positively to summated motivation in the peer-competitive context but negatively to this variable in the adult-evaluative context. These predictions were partly supported, and the data were interpreted in terms of the inverted U curve postulated to hold between discriminative behavior and total arousal. The summated motivation measure is a combination of need for achievement, defensiveness and test anxiety. (Author/DB)

Community Coordinated Child Care (4-C) offers a means both to improve services to children and to help communities "get it all together." In this modern society, community life is so complex that coordination and mobilization of resources are a must if the necessary social tasks are to get done...like seeing that all children receive good care, emotional security, mental stimulation, and a happy environment. In the process of developing 4-C, participants are developing a sense of what a real community is all about. (Author/CK)

Nonverbal behaviors in young children, including facial expressions, gesture, and body movement, were studied. Decision-making behaviors were viewed on a less intentional-intentional continuum ranging from beginning or pre-decision behavior which suggested little or no intent to middle or exploratory behaviors indicative of more intent to end behaviors which denoted strong intent or a child's absorption in or completion of a task. Subjects were University Nursery-Kindergarten children who were representative of each of the three age groups and were equally representative of both sexes. A Pilot and a Principal Study were conducted. An initial step in the Pilot Study was the development of the Pupil Nonverbal Category System. All observations were made during a free play period. The following were noted: (1) the nonverbal behaviors exhibited, (2) the nature of any personal interaction, and (3) task completion or the ability to stay with a task for at least five minutes. The occurrence of nonverbal behaviors and the relationship of these behaviors to decision making and to interactions with other persons were analyzed and reported in terms of mean frequencies, percentages, and rankings. It was found that: (1) Frequency of behaviors varied with age and sex; (2) With respect to nonverbal behaviors, the majority of beginning points were observed in the Task Oriented category; the majority of middle points in Focusing Seeking; and the majority of end points in Withdraw. It is recommended that more than one observer should study a child and nonverbal behaviors be recorded separate from decision-making behaviors. (Author/CK)

The report discusses the applicability of available advanced training technologies to the training of Navy tactical teams. An experiment was conducted to test whether there is sufficient commonality in team tasks performed in existing team tactics trainers to warrant development of a team training system for specific advanced technologies. Data were collected for team tasks learned in representative training devices for air, surface and subsurface tasks. These data were analyzed for commonality among and within training devices using a numerical taxonomy. Results indicated little commonality when total tasks were inspected, but more commonality when stimulus, cognition, and response elements were compared. A major recommendation is that the Navy concentrate on improving the effectiveness of existing devices rather than launching a program to develop a generalized training device. (RB)

A study designed to investigate to what extent ethno-linguistic background affects speech patterns and syntactic flexibility of grades one, four and six children from monolingual, bilingual-French and bilingual-German rural communities. A total of 216 randomly selected subjects were used; they were selected from nine rural Manitoba schools, and they were drawn in equal frequencies from grades one, four and six in each of the nine schools. The criterion measure for ability was Pintner Cunningham Primary Test for grade one, and the Pintner General Ability Test for grades four and six. All the language samples were segmented into minimal terminable units (T-units) single independent predications together with any subordinate clauses that may be grammatically related to it. The indices adopted for the study were differentiated on a dichotomous scale: positive and negative. Linguistic performance credited to the positive scale was assumed to indicate language maturity. Performance measured on the negative scale indicated deficiency in language development. Findings include: The only sentence-combining transformation categories favoring the grade six subjects were the Infinitive Phrase + Subject and the Coordinate transformations. Only two transformation categories showed any significant relationship to the sex variable; and the ability variable proved significant in all tested categories except Coordinate Structure transformations. (Author/CK)

Information theory was used to qualify the difficulty of verbal discrimination (VD) learning tasks and to measure VD performance. Words for VD items were selected with high background frequency and equal a priori probabilities of being selected as a first response. Three VD lists containing only 2-, 3-, or 4-word items were created and equated for information content at approximately 20 bits. Lists were presented for 6 trials at 1.5 or 3.0 sec. per item with 20 Ss per list. Only correct responses were reinforced. The uncertainty (H) in the response distribution was calculated for each item on each trial and summed for each list. The H remaining after Trial 6 averaged over all 3-sec. conditions was 8.4 bits. For the 1.5-sec. conditions, it was 15.2 bits, indicating that information was being processed at a constant rate. The amount of information processed per trial was also constant for each list condition, although differences among lists reached borderline significance (p .05) at the 3-sec. rate. It appeared quite feasible to apply information theory to VD learning as an absolute measure of task difficulty and performance. (Author)

This critique is concerned with the validity of three basic assumptions underlying the performance-based teacher education program. These assumptions are 1) The teaching act is the sum of performances into which it is analyzed. 2) The performance unit is a matter of indifference, i.e., the number and character of the performance unit can vary according to the program. 3) The criterion for the product is demonstrated competence in the selected set of training performances. Reasons for questioning the assumptions are based on a brief overview of the didactic, heuristic, and philetic teaching methods. The need for theory and the value of apprentice training are reviewed in order to obtain a full perspective of the problem. Performance-based teacher education will probably produce better "didactic technicians." A program in which laboratory work, clinical teaching, and internship are used to illuminate, exemplify, and utilize theory is suggested in order to produce a highly professional trained teacher. (MJM)

Sixty-one introductory psychology students were randomly assigned to two experimental treatment which consisted of either high or low ego-involving instructions. The entire experimental procedure, including the administrations of Spielberger's Trait Anxiety Inventory and State Anxiety Inventory, is elaborated. Results support the notion that state anxiety, i.e., feelings of apprehension and heightened nervous system activity, provides a more useful estimate of the relationship between anxiety and learning than trait anxiety, i.e., anxiety proneness. Support is also added to the notion that task conditions affect anxiety, in this case a concept learning task. Advantages of the author's research design are highlighted. (TL)

If rehearsal can be identified with inner speech and if Vygotsky's theory of the development of inner speech is correct, then it should be possible to disrupt rehearsal by impairing articulation in young children. Performing a delayed short-term memory task with impaired articulation did not lead to a large decrement in performance as compared with unimpaired controls. Hence, either one of the two premises stated above or one of two others on which the study depends is incorrect. (Author)

Strategies for instruction in performance oriented tasks were developed in three phases. Phase one was the preparation of appropriate strategies for a performance-oriented technician course. This phase (determination of current course status, current strategies, relevant characteristics of students and instructors, the course environment, and innovative strategies) emphasized innovative uses of training techniques with attention to know course problem areas. In Phase Two, the 56 strategies generated during the first phase were assigned to one of nine application groups (student selection and career field introduction, cognitive skill instruction, individual manual skills, team training, evaluation, incentive management, games, course development, and miscellaneous), and five strategies were selected for development for the course. During Phase Three, the feasibility of using the five different strategies was demonstrated by developers in brief oral presentations and illustrations with the materials. (Author/SH)

Two-year old white boys from Low and High social class (SES) groups were presented with identical learning tasks under nonverbal and verbal conditions. Under the nonverbal condition there were no SES differences, but under the verbal condition the High SES group significantly improved their performance, and were superior to the Low SES group. (Author)

The purpose of this investigation was to test two hypotheses concerning the ability of taxonomic tests of cognitive processes to differentiate the performance of students from varying educational environments in an effort to shed additional light on the construct validity of Bloom's Taxonomy. (Author)

This paper describes the results of an effort to apply a classification system, developed by the Human Resources Research Office (George Washington University), to a set of terminal objectives in reading. The classification system contained five factors, each factor embracing three levels. Some 312 terminal objectives (and 766 approximations) were classified by three raters. Agreement among raters was sketchy at the start of the rating, but improved dramatically with practice. It was concluded that (a) Classifying objectives is a useful procedure by which to evaluate the communicability of objectives; (b) Of all aspects of an objective, the verb is probably the most important; and (c) Reading objectives are no more difficult to classify than are objectives in other instructional content areas. (Author/CK)

The relative effectiveness of praise and group competition as motivating incentives affecting task persistence in young children was investigated. As predicted, competition was relatively more effective with 2nd graders than with kindergarten children, with boys than with girls, and with boring tasks than with more ego-involving tasks. However, competition was not significantly more effective than praise except on boring tasks. Competition may not be a very effective incentive for younger school children in view of its possible negative side effects. Praise appears to be simpler and equally effective. (Author)

A course in forming medium size pottery on the potter's wheel and developing skill to reproduce matching forms is presented. Abilities which will be expected of the student at the end of the course include: (1) defining important terms relating to pottery, (2) identifying and differentiating between certain aspects of ceramic art, and (3) demonstrating proper methods of clay preparation and handling. Course content covers those aspects for which student will be expected to display knowledge at the end of the course. (CK)

A course in introduction to music emphasizing modes and forms is presented. The approach used is a laboratory one in which pupils will develop skill in playing string instruments, sing, listen to, read and compose music with emphasis on identification of elementary concepts of mode and form. Course objectives include: (1) The pupil will select the title of a familiar melody heard from a list provided; (2) The pupil will identify the performing medium by ear; (3) The pupil will determine by ear if an example contains a complete cadence, an incomplete cadence, or no cadence; (4) The pupil will properly tighten, rosin and loosen bow; (5) The pupil will play rhythmic patterns on the open strings; (6) The pupil will play simple melodies which will utilize several bowing techniques; and (7) The pupil will demonstrate proper left hand position while performing three different finger patterns on each string in both half and first positions. Course content covers: (1) development of performance skills, (2) major scales, major and minor chords, and (3) forms. (Author/CK)

A course in music which emphasizes harmony is presented. The approach used is a laboratory one in which pupils will develop skill in playing orchestral string instruments, sing, listen to, read and compose music with emphasis on elementary concepts of harmony. Course objectives include: (1) The student will select the title of a familiar melody heard from a list provided; (2) The student will identify the type of instrumental ensemble heard using a list provided; (3) The student will determine by ear whether an example is in major, minor, or major and minor mode; (4) The student will identify simple musical forms by ear and by eye; (5) The student will exhibit proper position and maintenance of his instrument and bow; (6) The student will play from notation rhythmic passages using whole, half, dotted half, quarter, dotted quarter, eighth, dotted eight, and sixteenth notes; and, (7) The student will play passages which will utilize several bowing techniques. Course content is focused on: (1) development of performance skills, (2) Chromatic Scale, (3) Major Scales and Chords, and (4) Minor Scales and Chords. (Author/CK)

A course in introduction to music emphasizing harmony is presented. The approach used is a laboratory approach in which pupils will develop skill in playing percussion instruments, sing, listen to, read and compose music with emphasis on elementary concepts of harmony. Course objectives include: (1) The student will recognize duple, triple, quadruple, quintuple, and sextuple rhythms in their simple and compound forms; (2) The student will know names of lines and spaces of treble and bass clef, order of flats, order of sharps and will have a knowledge of key signature construction in major and minor modes; (3) The student will show a knowledge of tuning various percussions so as to get the best possible tone quality from the instruments; (4) The student will show the proper handgrip of his striking devices for all percussion and accessory instruments; and (5) The student will demonstrate the proper wrist action in playing on a drum pad and he will experience playing all the percussion instruments with proper technique. Course content covers the development of performance skills. (Author/CK)

A course in introduction to the conducting of music groups of voices or instruments is presented. The approach used is a laboratory approach in which pupils will develop skills in score reading, physical gestures, rehearsal techniques, transpositions, voice and instrument ranges. Course objectives include: (1) The pupil will identify all instruments of the band and orchestra by sight and sound; (2) The student will identify various music forms; (3) The student will indicate familiarity with transposition as well as instrumental and vocal tessitura; (4) The student will demonstrate the baton motions for all standard meters; and (5) The student will indicate music interpretation in his conducting. Course content covers the development of performance skills, the expansion of the student's musical repertoire, and the study of transpositions, form, harmony, and theory. (Author/CK)

A course in performaning organization in which students increase performance skills individually and in ensemble with emphasis on stylistic characteristics of the music studied is presented. Course objectives include: (1) The student will recognize the major and minor modes aurally and by notation; (2) The student will identify aurally and by notation basic music forms; (3) The student will identify aurally and by notation major, minor, and diminished chords; (4) The student will exhibit proper position and maintenance of his instrument; (5) The student will play combinations of rhythmic patterns which employ all meters; and (6) The student will perform etudes in all sharp and flat key signatures. Course content covers development of performance and listening skills. (Author/CK)

A course in forming, decorating, glazing, and firing pottery is presented. Upon completion of the course, the student will be expected to be familiar with all terms and characteristics connected with pottery and ceramics, and he will be expected to be able to properly handle and form clay. Course content includes the history of clay handling, methods of clay handling, and the equipment and tools for clay handling. (CK)

A course of study concerned with the area of sculpture known as "found art"; i.e., assemblages of common, every day objects into works of art, is presented. Objectives of the course require the student to be able to describe the procedures for found art techniques, define vocabulary concerned with found art, and demonstrate competency in the subject. Course content includes a demonstration of studio procedures, demonstration of found art techniques, and studio work. (CK)

A course in sculpturing wooden forms is presented. It has a two-fold purpose: (1) to create in the student an awareness of the effect sculptural forms have on his environment, (2) to further enhance the artistic abilities of the student through sculpting in wood. Content of the course includes a demonstration of wood sculpture techniques and an introduction to the materials of sculpting. (CK)

The research reported here was designed to measure the abilities of school-age children to form and generalize "visual concepts" on the basis of their observation of prepared sets of art reproductions. The art reproduction sets displayed similarities based upon various visual attributes. Discrimination of the attributes common to any given set was taken as evidence of concept formation. Selection of similar reproductions in additional displays was taken as evidence of concept generalization. Additionally, tape-recorded discussions of the test administrations were analyzed. These discussions yielded additional evidence of successful test performance (on a verbal dimension) and were useful in describing the character of children's abilities to discuss the visual attributes of art reproductions. Evidence gathered indicates that students at all grades (except, possibly, kindergarten) are able to form visual concepts from their observation of selected sets of art reproductions. Subjects also successfully described their classification of observed visual similarities when discussing the items. Students at all grade levels are also able to generalize visual concepts to previously unencountered examples. Reliability indices, computed for both types of displays, were below minimum standards for tests used to evaluate individual performance. The obtained reliabilities were attributed to interactions of low item intercorrelations, test length, and the lack of experience among subjects with the tasks tested. (Author/CK)

This Institute was based upon the premise that existing efforts to eliminate illiteracy must be dramatically increased across the country and this increase in effort and activity could be substantially achieved with existing resources through the creative and dynamic efforts of the State Directors of Adult Education. Consequently, the Institute was designed to provide as many human and material resources as possible for use by the State Directors in analyzing the magnitude of their tasks, their individual and collective roles, and in developing imaginative "plans of action" to maximize the effective use of resources in adult basic education. The participants in the Institute were involved in a variety of pre-conference planning activities prior to their involvement in a human relations-problem solving 2-week residential workshop. The major objectives of the workshop were to enhance the creative capabilities of the participants, to perfect their communication, perceptual and problem solving skills, and to put into action innovative ideas to help overcome certain problems which inhibit the impact and effectiveness of adult basic education. (Author)