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The use of muscles as power dissipators is investigated in this study, both from the modellistic and the experimental points of view. Theoretical predictions of the drop landing manoeuvre for a range of initial conditions have been obtained by accounting for the mechanical characteristics of knee extensor muscles, the limb geometry and assuming maximum neural activation. Resulting dynamics have been represented in the phase plane (vertical displacement versus speed) to better classify the damping performance. Predictions of safe landing in sedentary subjects were associated to dropping from a maximum (feet) height of 1.6-2.0 m (about 11 m on the moon). Athletes can extend up to 2.6-3.0 m, while for obese males (m = 100 kg, standard stature) the limit should reduce to 0.9-1.3 m. These results have been calculated by including in the model the estimated stiffness of the 'global elastic elements' acting below the squat position. Experimental landings from a height of 0.4, 0.7, 1.1 m (sedentary males (SM) and male (AM) and female (AF) athletes from the alpine ski national team) showed dynamics similar to the model predictions. While the peak power (for a drop height of about 0.7 m) was similar in SM and AF (AM shows a +40% increase, about 33 W/kg), AF stopped the downward movement after a time interval (0.219 +/- 0.030 s) from touch-down 20% significantly shorter than SM. Landing strategy and the effect of anatomical constraints are discussed in the paper.

Background Obesity is now a worldwide problem and Ireland is no exception with approximately two thirds of the adult population now overweight or obese. A recent report has found that 53 % of Irish adults aged 50 years and over are classified as centrally obese and at substantially increased risk of metabolic complications. While most studies investigating weight maintenance have been conducted on those who have managed to lose weight and/or achieved weight loss maintenance (secondary weight maintainers), few studies have been undertaken to understand the attitudes, behaviours, motivations and strategies of those who maintain their weight within normal weight ranges over their lifetime, so called primary weight maintainers. This study aims to explore this issue through qualitative exploration of primary weight maintainers in an Irish University. Methods Seven focus groups were conducted (including three single interviews) with 17 participants in total across three different groups, 1) primary weight maintainers, 2) secondary weight maintainers, and 3) those unable to sustain or achieve weight loss. The interviews were transcribed and thematic analysis was applied to interpret the findings. Results After analyzing the participant’s interviews, planning and organization or lack of, emerged as themes across the three groups in varying degrees. Strategizing, perseverance and willpower were seen as integral to weight maintenance and weight loss in groups one and two, these were lacking in group three. Prioritizing exercise and perseverance in maintaining a high level of activity was evident in groups one and two and was lacking in group three. Motivational influences were equal across the groups however, group three found it difficult to turn this into action. Group one had behavioural control of calorie intake maintaining a balance between week and weekend eating. Group three found it difficult to control calorie intake and portion size. Self-image differed across the three groups with cognitive dissonance evident amongst those in group three. Conclusions This study showed that there are many factors that influence primary weight maintenance. Considering that we live in a society that is predominantly sedentary, predominantly overweight and with poor food choice options facing us every day, fighting our way through to ensure healthy weight maintenance requires active, conscious efforts. The factors identified in this study which are important in healthy weight maintenance are all potentially modifiable with life-coach, nutrition, exercise and cognitive interventions particularly if peer support and a whole family approach are incorporated.

To investigate the effect of 16 weeks of aerobic training performed at two different intensities on nitric oxide (tNOx) availability and iNOS/nNOS expression, oxidative stress (OS) and inflammation in obese humans with or without type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Twenty-five sedentary, obese (BMI > 30 kg/m2) males (52.8 ± 7.2 years); 12 controls versus 13 T2DM were randomly allocated to four groups that exercised for 30 min, three times per week either at low (Fat-Max; 30–40 % VO2max) or moderate (T vent; 55–65 % VO2max) intensity. Before and after training, blood and muscle samples (v. lateralis) were collected. Baseline erythrocyte glutathione was lower (21.8 ± 2.8 vs. 32.7 ± 4.4 nmol/ml) and plasma protein oxidative damage and IL-6 were higher in T2DM (141.7 ± 52.1 vs. 75.5 ± 41.6 nmol/ml). Plasma catalase increased in T2DM after T vent training (from 0.98 ± 0.22 to 1.96 ± 0.3 nmol/min/ml). T2DM groups demonstrated evidence of oxidative damage in response to training (elevated protein carbonyls). Baseline serum tNOx were higher in controls than T2DM (18.68 ± 2.78 vs. 12.34 ± 3.56 μmol/l). Training at T vent increased muscle nNOS and tNOx in the control group only. Pre-training muscle nNOS was higher in controls than in T2DMs, while the opposite was found for iNOS. No differences were found after training for plasma inflammatory markers. Exercise training did not change body composition or aerobic fitness, but improved OS markers, especially when performed at T vent. Non-diabetics responded to T vent training by increasing muscle nNOS expression and tNOx levels in skeletal muscle while these parameters did not change in T2DM, perhaps due to higher insulin resistance (unchanged after intervention).

SUMMARY. Tracheas from chickens infected both in the field and experimentally with lentogenic Newcastle disease virus (also known as avian paramyxovirus-1 [APMV-1] and referred to here as “lentogenic NDV”) were examined histopathologically to score degree of pathologic changes and by immunohistochemistry to determine presence of viral protein. In the field cases there was often a striking lack of correlation between severity of tracheal lesions and amount of immunohistochemical signal for APMV-1 protein. Experimental cases had minimal pathologic changes and also minimal immunohistochemical signal. Positive cells were often associated with surface deciliation. It may be that lentogenic NDV has only a minor role as a respiratory pathogen, merely compromising the mucosa to allow other respiratory pathogens to infect and worsen the clinical and pathologic presentation.

The role of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) expression during Newcastle disease virus (NDV) infection in chickens is unknown. Infection of chickens with highly virulent NDV results in rapid death, which is preceded by increased expression of IFN-γ in target tissues. IFN-γ is a cytokine that has pleiotropic biological effects including intrinsic antiviral activity and immunomodulatory effects that may increase morbidity and mortality during infections. To better understand how IFN-γ contributes to NDV pathogenesis, the coding sequence of the chicken IFN-γ gene was inserted in the genome of the virulent NDV strain ZJ1 (rZJ1-IFNγ), and the effects of high levels of IFN-γ expression during infection were determined in vivo and in vitro. IFN-γ expression did not significantly affect NDV replication in fibroblast or in macrophage cell lines. However, it affected the pathogenesis of rZJ1-IFNγ in vivo. Relative to the virus expressing the green fluorescent protein (rZJ1-GFP) or lacking the IFN-γ insert (rZJ1-rev), expression of IFN-γ by rZJ1-IFNγ produced a marked decrease of pathogenicity in 4-week-old chickens, as evidenced by lack of mortality, decreased disease severity, virus shedding, and antigen distribution. These results suggest that early expression of IFN-γ had a significant protective role against the effects of highly virulent NDV infection in chickens, and further suggests that the level and timing of expression of this cytokine may be critical for the disease outcome. This is the first description of an in vivo attenuation of a highly virulent NDV by avian cytokines, and shows the feasibility to use NDV for cytokine delivery in chicken organs. This approach may facilitate the study of the role of other avian cytokines on the pathogenesis of NDV.

With increasing overweight and obesity among adolescents in Ireland (1) , it is generally agreed that monitoring trends in body weight is important to effectively plan management and prevention strategies. We must also take account of what adolescents are telling us about body image and how it impacts their lives (2) . Our study wished to address the experience of an adolescent group having their weight, waist circumference and height taken as part of a research study. Five Irish postprimary schools enrolled fourth year classes (aged 15–17 years) in the study. Weight, height and waist circumference were measured on the school grounds by trained health professionals including dietitians, nutritionists, nurses and doctors. Screens provided privacy for participants while measurements were being taken. At the end of the study period, all students were asked to complete an anonymous participant-evaluation questionnaire. Seventy-two percent (362/500) participated in the anthropometric measurements. Response rates were higher in single gender schools and ranged from 58 % (120/206) in a mixed gender school to 86 % (67/78) and 91 % (41/45) in a female only and male only school respectively. Principal reasons given for not participating were lack of interest in the study, absenteeism, and feeling uncomfortable about being measured. Eighty-five percent of students (308/362) who took part in anthropometry completed an evaluation survey. Students were asked to rate the experience as ‘positive’, ‘negative’ or ‘neither positive or negative’ and comment on their response.

Incremental tests are widely used in cardiopulmonary exercise testing, both in the clinical domain and in sport sciences. The highest workload (denoted W peak ) reached in the test is key information for assessing the individual body response to the test and for analyzing possible cardiac failures and planning rehabilitation, and training sessions. Being physically very demanding, incremental tests can significantly increase the body stress on monitored individuals and may cause cardiopulmonary overload. This article presents a new approach to cardiopulmonary testing that addresses these drawbacks. During the test, our approach analyzes the individual body response to the exercise and predicts the W peak value that will be reached in the test and an evaluation of its accuracy. When the accuracy of the prediction becomes satisfactory, the test can be prematurely stopped, thus avoiding its entire execution. To predict W peak , we introduce a new index, the CardioPulmonary Efficiency Index (CPE), summarizing the cardiopulmonary response of the individual to the test. Our approach analyzes the CPE trend during the test, together with the characteristics of the individual, and predicts W peak . A K-nearest-neighbor-based classifier and an ANN-based classier are exploited for the prediction. The experimental evaluation showed that the W peak value can be predicted with a limited error from the first steps of the test.

One outstanding issue in allogeneic hematopoietic transplantation is impaired immune reconstitution. As the primary site of T cell development, the thymus plays a key role in the generation of a strong yet self-tolerant adaptive immune response, essential in the face of the potential threat from pathogens or neoplasia. Allogeneic hematopoietic transplantation may acutely damage the thymus through the chemo or radiotherapy, antibody therapy of the conditioning regime, infections acquired by the immunosuppressed patient, and thymic graft versus host disease. To date, attempts to improve thymic reconstitution have been disappointing. Pre-clinical experiments and pilot clinical trials tried to assess the role of a variety of therapeutic approaches, such as transfer of lymphoid progenitor cells, thymic grafts, or enhancement of thymopoiesis by administration of hormonal or cytokine/growth factor-based therapies, such as sex-steroid blockade, and IL-7, IL-22, KGF, or Flt-3 ligand administration (reviewed in Chaudhry et al., Immunol Rev. 2016). In mouse MHC mismatched transplantation models (F1 H-2d/b→parent H-2b), we previously found that infusion of donor versus recipient alloreactive NK cells eradicated recipient-type lympho-hematopoietic lineage cells, thereby enhancing engraftment, protecting from GvHD and eradicating leukemia (Ruggeri et al., Science 2002). Here, in the same models we show that infusion of alloreactive NK cells greatly accelerates the post-hematopoietic transplant recovery of donor-type immune cells, i.e., dendritic cells (DCs) (p Disclosures No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

Campylobacter jejuni spp. jejuni, (C. jejuni) is a commensal bacterium in the lower gastrointestinal tract of poultry (e.g., chickens and turkeys), where it causes no clinical disease. Consumption of C. jejuni-contaminated poultry products is the most likely route of transmission to humans. Strategies previously attempted in chickens to reduce intestinal C. jejuni colonization include administration of probiotics, non-antibiotic feed additives, vaccines and bacteriophages. These interventions have not been evaluated in turkeys. Recombinant attenuated Salmonella vaccines (RASV) encoding C. jejuni cjaA are reported to reduce cecal C. jejuni colonization in chickens. The goal of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a RASV encoding cjaA in turkey poults experimentally colonized with C. jejuni. The cjaA gene from C. jejuni was cloned into RASV strain χ8133 (RASV-cjaA). A control RASV χ8133 (RASV-control) was generated lacking a cjaA insert. At different dates of age, poults received either one or two doses of RASV-cjaA. Other poults received 2 doses of RASV-control. Intestinal colonization by RASV-cjaA was evaluated and was detectable up to 6 days after oral inoculation. Poults were orally challenged with C. jejuni and euthanized at days 3, 7, 14 and 28 days post-challenge to evaluate cecal colonization (cfu/g content) and histopathological changes. Poults vaccinated with 2 doses of RASV-cjaA showed significant reduction (P

Background Positron emission tomography (PET) uses radiopharmaceutical labelling with b + emitting isotopes. 18 F is the most commonly used radioisotope in PET and is produced by Medical Cyclotron. During bombardment of target with [ 18 O]water to produce the radiopharmaceutical 18 F-metil-choline, radionuclidic impurities are generated. For the European Pharmacopoeia, these impurities have to be checked before application for human use. Purpose In this work, we set up accurate geometry for measurements with the HpGe spectrometer to assess radionuclidic impurities generated during the production of 18 F-metil-choline. Material and methods High resolution gamma spectrometry is the most appropriate method to determine gamma emitting radionuclides, but it needs the correct geometry for measurement. Samples from the different steps of the production process were collected: [ 18 O] irradiated water, waste target water, Cromafix cartridge, waste Cromafix water, WCX cartridge, final waste water and 18 F-FMeCh. Counting of samples was carried out after an appropriate period to allow for complete decay of 18 F. Liquid samples were analysed by volumetrically diluting an appropriate quantity of each solution (2 mL) with distilled water to a volume of 15 mL. The cartridges Cromafix and WCX were measured by placing the samples directly over the detector, through a support. Counting efficiency was established using a certificated standard Amersham, containing 241 Am, 133 Ba and 152 Eu (beaker Bertocchi 100 mL). We used Gespecor software to transfer the efficiency calibration from the geometry of standard to the geometry of the samples and the analysis was performed using the GammaVision analysis software. Results The data showed the presence of gamma emitting 51 Cr, 52 Mn, 54 Mn, 56 Co, 57 Co, 58 Co, 95m Tc, 96 Tc, 109 Cd, 184 Re and 186 Re in the [ 18 O] irradiated water. In the final 18 F-FMeCh solution, the activity of the impurities was lower than the minimum detectable activity of the spectrometer. Conclusion The software Gespecor has enabled us to determine radionuclide impurity with a single calibration source and to confirm the radiochemical purity of 18 F-metil-choline. Contaminants were identified in all stage of the synthesis process but they were absent in the final product. The purification methods adopted are effective as requested by the patient’s radiation protection standards and European Pharmacopoeia. References and/or Acknowledgements Technical staff at Cyclotron No conflict of interest.

A Newcastle disease virus (NDV) outbreak in chickens was reported in the Dominican Republic in 2008. The complete genome of this isolate, chicken/DominicanRepublic(JuanLopez)/499-31/2008 (NDV-DR499-31/08), and the fusion proteins of three other related viruses from the Dominican Republic and Mexico were sequenced and phylogenetically analyzed. Genetically, these four isolates were highly distinct from all other currently known isolates of NDV, and together, they fulfill the newly established criteria for inclusion as a novel genotype of NDV (genotype XVI). The lack of any reported isolation of viruses related to this group since 1986 suggests that virulent viruses of this genotype may have evolved unnoticed for 22 years. The NDV-DR499-31/08 isolate had an intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI) score of 1.88, and sequencing of the fusion cleavage site identified multiple basic amino acids and a phenylalanine at position 117, indicating this isolate to be virulent. These results were further confirmed by a clinicopathological assessment in vivo . In 4-week-old chickens, NDV-DR499-31/08 behaved as a velogenic viscerotropic strain with systemic virus distribution and severe necrohemorrhagic lesions targeting mainly the intestine and the lymphoid organs. The clear phylogenetic relationship between the 2008, 1986, and 1947 ancestral viruses suggests that virulent NDV strains may have evolved in unknown reservoirs in the Caribbean and surrounding regions and underlines the importance of continued and improved epidemiological surveillance strategies to detect NDV in wild-bird species and commercial poultry.

Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is a condition leading to excessive daytime sleepiness. The aim of the study was a) to study course of daytime sleepiness in patients with OSA and b) to find the most important nocturnal polysomnography parameters influencing daytime sleepiness in OSA.The cohort consisted of forty-five patients (6 women, 39 men) diagnosed with OSA. All patients underwent polysomnography, Multiple Sleep Latency Test (MSLT) and rated subjectively their daytime tendency to sleep with the Epworth Sleepiness Scale.Sleep latency was significantly longer at 15:00 and at 17:00 hours compared to previous tests. A significant negative correlation was found between the mean of the MSLT sleep latency and a number of awakenings, the apnoea/hypopnoea index and oxygen desaturation index values.The study showed the sleep latency prolongation at 15:00 and 17:00 hours respectively and confirmed connection of excessive daytime sleepiness to fragmentation of nocturnal sleep and OSA severity.

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) was isolated from an outbreak in layer chickens in the Dominican Republic in 2008. Infections with this isolate led to a 100% apparent case fatality rate in birds. Complete genome sequencing revealed that the isolate does not belong to any of the previously described NDV genotypes. Similarly, large differences were observed in the amino acid sequence of the fusion and hemagglutinin-neuraminidase proteins in comparison with all known NDV genotypes, suggesting the existence of an unknown reservoir for NDV. The work presented here represents the first complete genome sequence of NDV in the Dominican Republic.

Pressures below 10 −10 torr can be maintained in large LHe cooled UHV systemsby increasing the available active cryosorbing surface area. Clean metal oxides (metal sponges) can provide the required surface area increase for higher adsorption capacities as well as for enhancing the pumping speed at extremely low pressures. Metal sponges have several advantages over the conventional cryosorbers viz. molecular sieves and charcoals. The adsorption isotherms of H 2 and He at 4.3 K on metals (Al, stainless steel, Nb) and metal oxides (Al 2 O 3 , Nb 2 O 5 ) are given here in the pressure range 10 −14 − 10 −6 ton. An extractor gauge is used at LHe temperature to obtain this isotherm data.

Borrelia burgdorferi is the causative agent of Lyme disease, which is mainly characterized by lameness in dogs. More than 95% of naturally infected dogs are asymptomatic or subclinical; however, in experimental studies, histologic synovial lesions are consistently observed in asymptomatic dogs inoculated with B. burdgorferi. This study investigates the ability of a synovial histopathologic scoring system, clinicopathologic data, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing to differentiate between B. burgdorferi–infected and uninfected dogs. Eighteen 18-week-old beagles were subject to challenge with B. burgdorferi–infected wild-caught ticks ( Ixodes scapularis), and 4 uninfected dogs served as controls. Infection was confirmed by serology (ELISA) and PCR amplification of B. burgdorferi–specific DNA of skin biopsies taken at the tick attachment site. A synovial scoring system from human medicine was adapted and implemented on postmortem synovial samples to discriminate infected and noninfected animals. Application of this system to elbows and stifles with a cumulative joint score cutoff > 4 showed a sensitivity of 88.2% and a specificity of 100%, with a positive likelihood ratio of infinity and a negative likelihood ratio of 0.12. Complete blood count, serum biochemistry, urinalysis, urine protein:creatinine, urine PCR, synovial and lymph node cytology, and synovial PCR were evaluated but were not reliable indicators of clinical disease.

Newcastle disease (ND) remains a constant threat to the poultry industry and is a limiting disease for poultry producers worldwide. The variety of clinical presentations and the emergence and spread of new genetic variants make recognition and diagnosis challenging. The current review details the pertinent features of the clinicopathologic disease in the main susceptible species, including chicken, turkey, duck, goose, pigeon, and other birds such as cormorants, psittacines, and canaries. Furthermore, the available and emerging laboratory diagnostic methodologies for the detection and typing of the virus are reviewed, including traditional techniques such as virus isolation and immunohistochemistry as well as rapid procedures based on molecular tools, such as real-time polymerase chain reaction, gene sequencing, and microarrays. The relevant genetic variability of ND viruses probably represents the major limitation in the validation and application of the current, advanced diagnostic molecular techniques. This underscores the importance of a multidisciplinary and comprehensive diagnostic approach, which should include, next to the new generation assays of the genomic era, the more traditional techniques such as histopathology, immunohistochemistry, and virus isolation.

Although neurological signs have been reported sporadically in dogs with systemic Lyme disease, it is unknown if neuroborreliosis occurs in dogs. The current study systematically evaluates canine brains for evidence of Borrelia burgdorferi infection. Twelve Beagles were experimentally challenged with B. burgdorferi–infected ticks at 18 weeks of age, and 2 unexposed dogs served as controls. One of the uninfected dogs and 6 infected dogs were each given 5 daily immunosuppressive doses of dexamethasone starting at 153 days post-infection. Eleven dogs were confirmed as infected by skin punch biopsy polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and serology. Neurological signs were not seen in any dogs through the end of the 190-day study. Whole blood, serum, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and brains from all dogs were collected. DNA was extracted from blood, CSF, and brain and evaluated by PCR for B. burgdorferi. Formalin-fixed brain tissue was examined by histopathology, immunohistochemistry, and PCR. Immunohistochemical staining for B. burgdorferi antigen was negative in all cases. The CSF analysis was normal, and PCR was uniformly negative for B. burgdorferi in all dogs. Six of the 11 (45%) infected dogs had mild to moderate lymphoplasmacytic choroid plexitis, which was more pronounced in the immunosuppressed dogs. The lack of B. burgdorferi DNA and immunohistochemical evidence of organisms, including within the choroid plexus lesions, suggests that B. burgdorferi does not have a direct role in the etiopathogenesis of canine central nervous system pathology.

Recent evidence suggests that stressful experiences may be related to deficits in inhibitory functions and temporolimbic epileptic-like activity. The latter may produce psychosensory seizure-like symptoms that may also appear in nonepileptic conditions. This study assesses whether the increased presence of the seizure-like symptoms in 113 unipolar depressive patients treated with SSRIs is associated with significantly more severe symptoms of depression, traumatic stress, and dissociation in comparison with 86 healthy controls. Results indicate that seizure-like symptoms in depressive patients have significant association with depression, symptoms of dissociation, and traumatic stress. This association suggests that processess generating seizure-like symptoms may be related to symptoms of depression, traumatic stress, and dissociation.

Among heat shock proteins, mortalin has been linked to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. In the present work a rat model of Parkinson's disease was used to analyze the expression of striatal proteins and, more specifically, mortalin expression. The possible involvement of mortalin in Parkinson's disease pathogenesis was further investigated by utilizing an electrophysiological approach and pharmacological inhibition of mortalin in both the physiological and the parkinsonian states. Proteomic analysis was used to investigate changes in striatal protein expression in the 6-hydroxydopamine rat model of Parkinson's disease. The electrophysiological effects of MKT-077, a rhodamine-123 analogue acting as an inhibitor of mortalin, were measured by field potential recordings from corticostriatal brain slices obtained from control, sham-operated, and 6-hydroxydopamine-denervated animals. Slices in the presence of rotenone, an inhibitor of mitochondrial complex I, were also analyzed. Proteomic analysis revealed downregulation of mortalin in the striata of 6-hydroxydopamine-treated rats in comparison with sham-operated animals. MKT-077 reduced corticostriatal field potential amplitude in physiological conditions, inducing membrane depolarization and inward current in striatal medium spiny neurons. In addition, we observed that concentrations of MKT-077 not inducing any electrophysiological effect in physiological conditions caused significant changes in striatal slices from parkinsonian animals as well as in slices treated with a submaximal concentration of rotenone. These findings suggest a critical link between mortalin function and mitochondrial activity in both physiological and pathological conditions mimicking Parkinson's disease.

Little is known about the host response of chickens infected with Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and the relationship between the innate immune response and the severity of clinical disease. Measurement of cytokine responses during infection in vivo can help to elucidate the mechanisms of virus pathogenesis. The transcriptional response of several cytokines from paraffin-embedded, formalin-fixed spleen of chicken naturally infected by NDV velogenic viscerotropic viruses was compared to the responses of atypical velogenic, velogenic neurotropic, and mesogenic strains during the first five days after infection. The RNA expression for IFN-γ and IL-6 was enhanced at day two in the highly virulent velogenic viscerotropic viruses (California and rZJ1 strains) and corresponded with the presence of the virus in tissues. However, in one atypical velogenic viscerotropic virus (Australia strain), two velogenic neurotropic viruses (Turkey ND and Texas GB) and, a mesogenic virus (Anhinga strain) the cytokine responses to infection were delayed or reduced. Increased levels of IFN-β RNA expression were only detected in the velogenic viscerotropic virus infected chickens (California and rZJ1 strains) at 3 days post-infection and one mesogenic strain (Anhinga) early in infection. The RNA expression levels of IL-2 did not increase upon infection with any of the viruses. A pronounced increase of RNA expression levels of IL-6 and IFN-γ was detected simultaneously with infiltration of macrophages and/or lymphoid necrosis in the histopathological analysis of the spleen and cecal tonsils. The differences in the RNA expression levels may help explain possible underlying mechanisms of clinical disease and/or immune responses in birds infected with strains of APMV-1 that cause distinct pathologic changes.