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Case Description--An approximately 8-month-old female Miniature Lop rabbit (Oryctola-gus cuniculus) was evaluated because of an acute onset of progressive paraparesis. Clinical Findings--The rabbit was ambulatory paraparetic, and results of neurologic ex-amination were consistent with a myelopathy localizing to theT3-L3 spinal cord segments. Evaluation with CT myelography revealed focal extradural spinal cord compression bilater-ally at the level of the articular process joints of T12-L1. Treatment and Outcome--A Funkquist type A dorsal laminectomy was performed atT12-L1, and the vertebral column was stabilized with pins and polymethylmethacrylate-based cement. Multiple vertebral synovial cysts were confirmed on histologic evaluation of the surgically excised tissues. The rabbit was nonambulatory with severe paraparesis postop-eratively and was ambulatory paraparetic at a recheck examination 7 weeks after surgery. Fourteen weeks after surgery, the rabbit appeared stronger; it walked and hopped slowly but still fell and dragged its hindquarters when moving faster. Thirty-seven weeks after sur-gery, the neurologic status was unchanged. Clinical Relevance--Although thoracolumbar myelopathy in rabbits is commonly second-ary to vertebral fracture, vertebral synovial cysts should be considered a differential diag-nosis for rabbits with slowly progressive paraparesis. Decompressive surgery and stabili-zation can result in a good outcome for rabbits with this condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A letter to the editor and a reply are presented in response to the article "Surgical management of vertebral synovial cysts in a rabbit (Oryctolagus cunkulu)," by J. A. Delamaide Gasper, H. Rylander, and C. Mans in the 2014 issue.

Intravenous regional limb perfusion (IVRLP) has been used in the treatment of pododermatitis and distal limb infections, which are significant causes of morbidity in avian species. This intravenous drug administration technique is designed to achieve high drug tissue concentrations while minimizing systemic toxic effects. Amikacin is commonly used for IVRLP in veterinary medicine, but dosing guidelines have not been established for its use in birds. The current study aimed to determine the tissue concentration of amikacin after a single IVRLP administration in healthy, euhydrated leghorn hen chickens ( Gallus gallus domesticus ). Chickens received a single IVRLP dose of 10 mg/kg amikacin and were euthanatized posttreatment at 1 hour (n = 6), 12 hours (n = 6), and 24 hours (n = 6) to assess tissue and synovial fluid concentrations of amikacin in the injected leg. Mean tissue concentrations were highest 1 hour post-IVRLP (synovial fluid = 153.0 µg/mL, metatarsal pad tissue = 26.05 µg/mL) before declining at the 12- and 24-hour time points. This indicates that administration of amikacin via IVRLP can reach minimum inhibitory concentrations of common bacterial isolates in tissues after a single treatment with 10 mg/kg amikacin. Regional limb perfusion every 24 hours is recommended, although the minimum days of treatment may be case dependent and vary based on response to therapy.

Objective: To retrospectively evaluate the clinical use of voriconazole in psittacine patients for the treatment of suspected respiratory fungal infections., Animals: 14 client-owned psittacine birds., Methods: Medical records were searched from 2012 to 2023 for voriconazole use in psittacines. Species, age, clinical signs, physical examination findings, CT reports, bloodwork results, treatment, and outcome were obtained from the records or client follow-up., Results: African grey parrots were the most prevalent species (8/14). Dyspnea (9/14) and abnormal respiratory auscultation (11/14) were the most common examination abnormalities. An initial CT was performed in all cases, and pneumonia (10/14) and air sac disease (9/14) were the most common findings, with 8 cases having both pulmonary and air sac disease. Voriconazole doses ranged from 10 to 21 mg/kg (median, 16 mg/kg), with most cases prescribed as every-12-hour frequency (12/14). Three of 14 (21%) cases died or were euthanized within 24 days of diagnosis. One case was euthanized at 311 days, and 6 cases were lost to follow-up. Four of 14 (29%) cases lived > 12 months from diagnosis. Two of these cases cleared clinical infection after receiving voriconazole at 17 to 18 mg/kg (q 12 h). No adverse effects attributable to voriconazole were reported., Clinical Relevance: Voriconazole can be safely used for the treatment of suspected fungal respiratory infection in psittacines. However, the prognosis for resolution is guarded, and prolonged treatment and repeated diagnostic imaging are necessary in many cases.

A free-ranging Eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) was presented for ulcerated cutaneous masses at the base of both pinnae in July 2021. Diagnosis of cutaneous histiocytosis was achieved by histologic and immunohistochemical examination of one excised mass and supported by spontaneous resolution of the contralateral mass before the squirrel's release., (© Wildlife Disease Association 2024.)

Objective: To characterize the epidemiologic features of rabbits with odontogenic abscesses., Animals: 72 client-owned rabbits., Methods: The medical record database of a veterinary teaching hospital was searched to identify rabbits with odontogenic abscesses characterized by a palpable facial mass and confirmed via CT scan. Data reviewed included age, breed, presenting complaint, abscess location, bacterial culture results, treatment, and outcome., Results: Lop-eared rabbits were the most common breeds affected (20/72 [28%]), and mini lop rabbits were significantly overrepresented. The mandibular quadrants were more frequently affected (65/92 [71%]), and osteomyelitis was a common comorbidity on CT (53/72 [74%]). The most common aerobic and anaerobic isolates were Streptococcus spp (17/40 [43%]) and Fusobacterium spp (10/22 [45%]), respectively. Systemic antibiotic therapy alone was performed in 35 of 62 (56%) treated cases, with documented resolution in 25%. Abscess packing with antibiotic-soaked gauze in conjunction with systemic antibiotic therapy was performed in 20 of 62 (32%) treated cases. Resolution of the odontogenic abscesses with this treatment protocol was documented in 17 of 20 (85%) cases. The number of packing procedures used to obtain resolution of infection was 4 (IQR, 3 to 5)., Clinical Relevance: A combination of the abscess-packing technique, which avoids extensive surgery and extraction of the involved elodont teeth, with systemic antibiotic therapy can be an effective treatment option for rabbits with palpable odontogenic abscesses and can result in a high cure rate comparable to more invasive surgical treatments. Antibiotic treatment alone is not recommended, as it has a low chance of abscess resolution.

Objective: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of hydromorphone administered SC in four-toed hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris)., Animals: 12 healthy adult hedgehogs., Methods: Hedgehogs underwent 2 randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, complete crossover studies. Hind limb withdrawal latencies in response to an acute thermal noxious stimulus were measured to evaluate the antinociceptive efficacy of hydromorphone. Baseline latencies were obtained prior to injection and collected again at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 6 hours following injection. Based on pilot studies, single doses of SC hydromorphone at 0.15 and 0.3 mg/kg were evaluated for efficacy in crossover trials. Safety of single (0.15 and 0.3 mg/kg) and multiple doses of hydromorphone (0.3 mg/kg, SC, q 4 h, for 3 doses) was also assessed. In addition to monitoring behavior during latency measurements, animals were evaluated for overt sedation and daily changes in food intake, body weight, and running wheel activity for 6 days after injection to evaluate for adverse effects., Results: Hydromorphone at 0.15 mg/kg provided antinociception lasting < 4 hours, and 0.3 mg/kg provided antinociception lasting < 6 hours. Hydromorphone produced transient abnormal behaviors at both doses, including vocalization, chewing motions of the jaw, and paw raising. There were no statistically significant differences in body weight or running wheel activity between treatments for single or multiple doses of hydromorphone. Three doses of 0.3 mg/kg hydromorphone (q 4 h) produced a statistically significant decrease (median, -9.7%; range, -64% to 10%) in 6-day total food intake., Clinical Relevance: Subcutaneous hydromorphone (0.15 to 0.3 mg/kg) can be used for short-term antinociception with transient adverse effects in hedgehogs.

Objective: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of SC methadone in four-toed hedgehogs., Animals: 9 to 12 healthy adult four-toed hedgehogs (7 to 9 males and 3 females)., Methods: Hedgehogs underwent 3 randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, complete crossover studies. Hind limb withdrawal latencies in response to an acute thermal noxious stimulus were measured to evaluate the antinociceptive efficacy of methadone. Single doses of SC methadone were evaluated at 0.5 and 1 mg/kg for dose-dependent effects. Additionally, methadone (1.5 mg/kg) was administered at different concentrations to assess the effect of injection volume on antinociceptive efficacy. Finally, the safety of multiple doses of methadone (1.5 mg/kg, SC, q 2 h, for 3 doses) was also evaluated. In addition to monitoring behavior during latency measurements, animals were assessed for overt sedation. Food intake, body weight, and running wheel activity were assessed daily for 6 days following methadone administration to evaluate for adverse effects., Results: Methadone at 1 and 1.5 mg/kg provided antinociception lasting < 2 hours, and injection volume had no significant effect on efficacy. Methadone at 0.5 mg/kg did not induce antinociception. Methadone produced transient abnormal behaviors in all hedgehogs, with more animals affected at the 1.5-mg/kg dose. Behaviors included periods of standing motionless, vocalization, chewing motions, and paw raising. Single- or multiple-dose administration of methadone had no significant effect on total food intake, body weight, or running wheel activity., Clinical Relevance: The results of this study provide additional information on providing analgesia to hedgehogs. Subcutaneous methadone (1 to 1.5 mg/kg) can be used for short-term antinociception in hedgehogs.

A 12-year-old male eclectus parrot ( Eclectus roratus ) was referred for evaluation of coelomic distention. Computed tomography and blood work revealed coelomic effusion with free coelomic mineral-attenuating material and elevations in the bile acids and aspartate aminotransferase activity, respectively. Coelomic effusion was consistent with macrophagic inflammation with abundant intracellular lipids. Initial treatment with meloxicam resulted in minimal patient improvement. Disseminated xanthogranulomatous inflammation was suspected based on imaging and diagnostic laboratory results, which were consistent with those previously reported. Biopsy samples of liver tissue and intracoelomic masses confirmed this diagnosis. Treatment was initiated with prednisolone 1 mg/kg/d for 6 months, followed by 0.5 mg/kg/d for 3 months. Clinical improvement was assessed based on owner evaluation, plasma bile acid concentrations, and repeated computed tomographic scans. After 2 months of treatment, the owner reported improved behavior and appetite; this persisted throughout treatment and when the bird was reexamined 17 months following the cessation of steroid therapy. Bile acid concentrations were normal 10 months after the prednisolone therapy was discontinued. Diagnostic imaging showed minimal coelomic effusion 10 months after the last prednisolone dose was administered, with improved ventilation of the air sacs and static to improved dystrophic mineral foci. This report describes the antemortem diagnosis and treatment of disseminated coelomic xanthogranulomatous disease in a psittacine species, with an observed measurable therapeutic response.

Objective: To characterize the epidemiologic features of rabbits with retrobulbar abscesses, including the clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, and outcome., Animals: 21 client-owned rabbits., Methods: The medical record database of a veterinary teaching hospital was searched from 2011 to 2022 for records of rabbits diagnosed with retrobulbar abscesses by CT. Data reviewed included age, breed, presenting complaint, association with an odontogenic infection, aerobic and anaerobic culture results, treatment, and outcome., Results: The primary presenting complaint was exophthalmos (19/21 [90%]). Most cases (15/21 [71%]) were associated with an odontogenic infection. Dental disease, not associated with a retrobulbar abscess (14/21 [67%]), was a common comorbidity on CT. The most common aerobic and anaerobic isolates were Streptococcus intermedius (5/12 [42%]) and Fusobacterium nucleatum (2/12 [17%]), respectively. Surgical treatment combined with long-term systemic antibiotic therapy was performed in 9 of 21 (43%) cases. It included intraoral tooth extraction (4/9 [44%]) versus extraoral peribulbar abscess lancing with either abscess packing with antibiotic-soaked gauze (3/9 [33%]) or surgical abscess debridement (2/9 [22%]). Resolution of the clinical signs with no recurrence for at least 6 months occurred in 7 of 9 (78%) surgically treated cases. Medical treatment with long-term systemic antibiotic therapy was performed in 4 of 21 (19%) cases, and 3 of 4 (75%) resolved. Due to poor prognosis or financial concerns, euthanasia was performed or recommended in 8 of 21 (38%) cases., Clinical Relevance: On the basis of the data from this study, retrobulbar abscesses in rabbits carry a guarded prognosis. When intraoral and extraoral surgical treatment options combined with systemic antibiotic therapy were used, it resolved clinical disease in most cases.

Objective: To evaluate intraoperative and postoperative complications and outcomes following subconjunctival enucleations with and without third eyelid removal in domestic rabbits., Animals: 18 client-owned rabbits with ocular disease confined to the globe that underwent 20 subconjunctival enucleation procedures at a veterinary teaching hospital., Methods: Records were retrospectively reviewed for all enucleations performed at a veterinary teaching hospital from 2014 to 2022. A standard subconjunctival enucleation procedure was performed in all cases, with third eyelid removal in 2 surgeries and without third eyelid removal in the remaining 18 surgeries. Outcomes were assessed on the basis of observations in medical records and owner follow-up., Results: 20 total enucleations were included. Reported reasons for enucleation included suspected or confirmed ocular Encephalitozoon cuniculi infection in 9 rabbits, refractory glaucoma in 4 rabbits, and various intraocular diseases in 5 rabbits. The only intraoperative complication reported was hemorrhage during the third eyelid removal in 1 surgery. Postoperative complications included serous to mucoid discharge from the surgical site in 8 of 20 surgeries and swelling at the surgery site in 2 of the 8 cases that had discharge. Postoperative swelling spontaneously resolved within 3 months of surgery; postoperative discharge spontaneously resolved within 10 months of surgery., Clinical Relevance: Subconjunctival enucleation with or without third eyelid removal in rabbits may be a viable enucleation technique to reduce the risk for intraoperative hemorrhage, but it can result in postoperative complications, including transient discharge and swelling at the surgical site.

Knowledge of lagomorph confluence sinuum anatomy on contrast-enhanced CT may prevent the misdiagnoses of intracranial, extra-axial masses. The purpose of this retrospective, observational, descriptive study was to describe the characteristics of the confluence sinuum in rabbits on contrast-enhanced CT. Images of 24 rabbits who had pre- and postcontrast CT sequences of the skull were reviewed by an American College of Veterinary Radiology-certified veterinary radiologist and third-year radiology resident. Degree of contrast enhancement within the region of the confluence sinuum was graded based on consensus as no (0), mild (1), moderate (2), or marked (3) contrast enhancement. Hounsfield units (HU) of the confluence sinuum was measured in three different regions of interest, averaged for each patient, and divided into each group for comparison using one-way ANOVA analysis. Contrast enhancement was mild in 45.8% (11/24) rabbits, moderate in 33.3% (8/24), marked in 20.8% (5/24), and none in 0.0% (0/24). There were significant differences (P < 0.05) between the average HU of the mild and marked group (P-value = 0.0001) and moderate and marked groups (P-value = 0.0010). Two rabbits with marked contrast enhancement were initially misdiagnosed with an intracranial, extra-axial mass along the parietal lobe based on contrast-enhanced CT. On necropsy, no gross or histopathological abnormalities were identified in the brain for these rabbits. In summary, contrast enhancement was identified in all rabbits (24/24) on contrast-enhanced CT imaging . This normal structure can be variable in size should not be mistaken for a pathological lesion in the absence of mass effect, secondary calvarial lysis, or hyperostosis., (© 2023 The Authors. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Radiology.)

Limited information on the analgesic efficacy and safety of even clinically commonly used analgesic drugs in guinea pigs and chinchillas is available. Buprenorphine and meloxicam are currently the most common analgesics routinely used to treat painful conditions in guinea pigs and chinchillas. Hydromorphone has also shown to be an effective analgesic drug in these species, with limited adverse effects. Tramadol in chinchillas does not provide analgesia even at high doses, and no information is available on the efficacy of this drug in guinea pigs. Multimodal analgesic protocols should be considered whenever possible., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To evaluate the sedative effects of IM administration of a high or low dose of dexmedetomidine in combination with midazolam in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus)., Animals: 20 healthy adult budgerigars., Procedures: In a prospective, randomized, blinded study, birds were sedated with a high dose (HD; 0.04 mg/kg, IM; n = 10) or low dose (LD; 0.01 mg/kg, IM; 10) of dexmedetomidine in combination with midazolam (3 mg/kg, IM). Twenty minutes later, atipamezole (0.4 mg/kg [HD group] or 0.1 mg/kg [LD group], IM) and flumazenil (0.1 mg/kg, IM) were administered for reversal of sedation., Results: Times to first effect and to sternal recumbency after administration of the sedatives and times to standing and eating after administration of the antagonists did not differ between groups. Most birds (9/10 in the HD group and 7/10 in the LD group) lost the righting response by 10 minutes after sedative administration, and the peak effect for radiographic positioning was by 15 minutes. Although it was not clinically relevant, most birds showed mild resedation by 60 minutes after administration of the reversal agents. There was no significant cardiorespiratory compromise detected with either protocol., Clinical Relevance: Dexmedetomidine-midazolam can safely and effectively provide a dose-dependent level of sedation in healthy budgerigars. The HD protocol is recommended for radiographic positioning, as it allows for a more reliable, deeper plane of sedation.

Objective: To evaluate the outcome of surgical fixation of shell fractures in rehabilitated wild freshwater turtles., Animals: 51 freshwater turtles with 86 shell fractures., Procedures: The medical record database of a wildlife rehabilitation center in Wisconsin was searched from 2014 through 2019 for records of freshwater turtles with shell fractures repaired with a plate technique, screws and wire technique, or both. Signalment, fracture location, therapeutic approach (including the type of hardware used for repair), dry-docking duration, time to hardware removal, postremoval care, and outcome were evaluated., Results: 36 of 51 (71%) turtles with shell fractures experienced successful fracture healing following surgical hardware fixation, and 33 (65%) were released. Shells of 38 (75%) turtles were repaired with plates only, 5 (10%) turtles with wire only, and 8 (16%) turtles with a combination of plates and screws and wires. Of the 51 turtles, 13 (25%) did not survive > 4 weeks following hardware repair, leaving 38 animals available to assess fracture healing. Median time to start staged removal was 42 days (range, 35 to 49 days) and to complete removal of the applied hardware was 56 days (range, 26 to 77 days). Complications associated with placement of the hardware occurred in 6 of 38 (16%) turtles. Complications included screw hole infection (4/38 [11%]), fracture necrosis (1/38 [3%]), and deep screw hole penetration (1/38 [3%])., Clinical Relevance: Results indicated that shell fractures in freshwater turtles treated with surgical fixation techniques had a successful outcome. Most complications were minor, and fractures improved with time, resulting in acceptable fracture healing for release.

The field of lizard sedation, anesthesia, and locoregional anesthesia is advancing with new drug protocols being evaluated, and new locoregional techniques being developed and evaluated. Inducing and maintaining effective and safe chemical restraint in lizards can be challenging, particularly in systemically diseased individuals. Understanding the anatomic and physiologic adaptations of lizards, using reversible or partially reversible injectable protocols, and using locoregional anesthesia may increase the quality of chemical restraint, facilitate faster recoveries, and limit anesthesia-related morbidity and mortality., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To assess the antinociceptive efficacy and safety of neuraxial morphine in inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps)., Animals: 10 healthy adult bearded dragons., Procedures: Animals were sedated with alfaxalone (15 mg/kg) SC prior to neuraxial injections. In a randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover design, animals received preservative-free morphine (0.5 mg/kg) combined with lidocaine (2 mg/kg) or lidocaine (2 mg/kg) only (control treatment). For both treatments, saline (0.9% NaCl) solution was used for dilution to a total volume of 0.3 mL/kg. If the initial injection did not result in motor block of the pelvic limbs or cloaca relaxation within 10 minutes, a second injection was performed. Measurements consisted of bilateral mechanical stimulation of the limbs and at 25%, 50%, and 75% of the trunk's length as well as cloacal tone to assess spread and duration of motor block. Pelvic limb withdrawal latencies in response to a thermal noxious stimulus were measured over a 48-hour period to assess antinociception., Results: Success rate following the first injection was 90% (18/20 injections) and increased to 100% following a second injection. Motor block occurred within 5 minutes with both treatments. Pelvic limb withdrawal latencies were significantly prolonged following neuraxial morphine versus control treatment for at least 12 hours after injection. By 24 hours, no effect of morphine on pelvic limb latencies was detectable., Clinical Relevance: These results demonstrated that neuraxial administration of morphine results in regional antinociceptive effects for at least 12 hours and has no clinically relevant adverse effects in healthy bearded dragons. This technique has potential for providing regional analgesia in this species.

The use of procedural sedation in birds has become a routine practice in veterinary medicine during the past 10 years, with a corresponding increase in avian sedation research. Sedation is most often used in a clinical setting for birds to facilitate examination and/or diagnostic sample collection, splint application, grooming, and minor surgical procedures. Sedation provides several benefits over manual restraint or general anesthesia when performing clinical procedures. This review provides an overview of current studies on avian sedation and discusses common indications, protocols, and adverse effects of sedation in avian patients.

Tinidazole is a second-generation nitroimidazole compound that is used as an antimicrobial to treat anaerobic bacterial and protozoal infections in humans and, less frequently, in veterinary medicine. However, metronidazole, another secondgeneration nitroimidazole, is more commonly used. Nonetheless, tinidazole has proven to be a superior therapy for parasitic infections in humans, particularly in the treatment of giardiasis. Furthermore, in chinchillas, metronidazole has been shown to cause a clinically relevant reduction in food intake after oral administration at published dosages. This study's objective was to evaluate the effect of orally administered tinidazole on food intake in healthy chinchillas. In 2 randomized, placebocontrolled, blinded, crossover studies, tinidazole was evaluated at 2 single high doses (100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg PO, n = 9) and a repeated dosing schedule at a lower dose (20 mg/kg PO q12h for 10 doses, n = 12). Food intake was measured over 24-h periods before and after drug administration. The single-dose treatment groups both displayed significantly reduced food intake (200 mg/kg: -26 ± 21%; 100 mg/kg: -9 ± 21%, P < 0.01) as compared with the control group during the first 24 h after drug administration. Food intake returned to pretreatment values within 4-5 d. Repeated administration at 20 mg/kg q12h was not associated with any significant changes in food intake. No other adverse effects were noted during this study. Tinidazole administration at single higher doses resulted in an acute self-limiting reduction in food intake. In comparison, repeated administration of lower doses (20 mg/kg PO q12h) had no significant effects on food intake in healthy chinchillas. Therefore, tinidazole may be a more suitable drug for treating Giardia and anaerobic bacterial infections in this species than the more commonly used metronidazole.

In biomedical research, rabbits are commonly sedated to facilitate a variety of procedures. Developing a sedation assessment scale enables standardization of levels of sedation and comparisons of sedation protocols, and may help in predicting sedation level requirements for different procedures. The goal of this study was to develop a rabbit sedation assessment scale using a psychometric approach. We hypothesized that the sedation scale would have construct validity, good internal consistency, and reliability. In a prospective, randomized, blinded study design, 15 (8 females, 7 males) healthy 1-y-old New Zealand white rabbits received 3 intramuscular treatments: midazolam (0.5 mg/kg; n = 6); midazolam (1.5 mg/kg)-ketamine (5 mg/kg; n = 7); and alfaxalone (4 mg/kg)-dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg/kg)-midazolam (0.2 mg/kg; n = 3). One rabbit received 2 treatments. A sedation scale was developed by using psychometric methods, with assessment performed by 6 independent raters who were blind to treatment. Final sedation scale items included posture, palpebral reflex, orbital tightening, lateral recumbency, loss of righting reflex, supraglottic airway device placement, toe pinch, and general appearance. The scale showed construct validity, good to very good interrater reliability for individual items (6 raters; intraclass correlation coefficient, 0.671 to 0.940), very good intrarater reliability (5 raters; intraclass correlation coefficient, 0.951 to 0.987), and excellent internal consistency (Cronbach α, 0.947). The sedation scale performed well under the conditions tested, suggesting that it can be applied in a wider range of settings (different populations, raters, sedation protocols).

Chinchillas have been used mostly as fur animals and as animal models for human ontological diseases and only recently have been recognized as excellent, long-lived, and robust pet rodents. This review aims to provide updated information on emerging disease conditions in pet chinchillas, such as Streptococcus equi subsp zooepidemicus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Furthermore, this review article provides updated information on previously documented disorders, such as urolithiasis and middle ear disease, in chinchillas. This article is intended to serve as a complement to the current veterinary reference literature and to provide valuable and clinically relevant information for veterinarians treating chinchillas., Competing Interests: Disclosures The authors have nothing to disclose., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To assess the feasibility, success rate, onset, duration and extent of motor/sensory block following intrathecal injection of lidocaine in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps)., Study Design: Prospective experimental study., Animals: A group of eight adult bearded dragons (0.333 ± 0.048 kg)., Methods: The animals were sedated with alfaxalone (15 mg kg -1 ) subcutaneously. Neuraxial injections were performed with 1% lidocaine (2 mg kg -1 ) or 0.9% sodium chloride (0.2 mL kg -1 ) in all animals with a 7 day interval. If the initial injection did not result in motor block of the pelvic limbs within 10 minutes, a second injection was performed at the same dose. Measurements consisted of bilateral mechanical stimulation of limbs; 25%, 50%, and 75% of the trunk's length; and cloacal tone. Animals were monitored for any untoward side effects by monitoring heart rate (HR), respiratory rate, righting reflex and head position., Results: Success rate following the first injection of lidocaine was 50% (four out of eight animals) and increased to 75% (six out of eight animals) following a second injection. Onset of motor/sensory block occurred within 5 minutes in all successful injections. Duration and extent were variable, with most bearded dragons presenting motor/sensory block of cloaca and pelvic limbs (six out of six) and 25% of the trunk (five out of six) with mean ± standard deviation (range) duration of 49 ± 28 (25-100), 48 ± 25 (25-90) and 40 ± 14 (25-50) minutes, respectively. Confirmation of intrathecal injection by aspiration of cerebrospinal fluid was not possible. Neuraxial lidocaine significantly increased depth and duration of sedation, with a transient increase in HR, compared with saline., Conclusion and Clinical Relevance: Neuraxial lidocaine is a feasible technique with moderate success rate and low risk of complication in bearded dragons. This technique has potential for improving the management of anesthesia in this species., (Copyright © 2018 Association of Veterinary Anaesthetists and American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Limited information is available regarding the efficacy of opioid analgesics in chinchillas. Here we sought to evaluate the analgesic efficacy and safety of hydromorphone in chinchillas. In a randomized, controlled, blind, complete crossover design, hydromorphone was administered at 0.5, 1, and 2 mg/kg SC to 16 chinchillas. Analgesic efficacy was determined by measuring hindlimb withdrawal latencies after a thermal noxious stimulus (Hargreaves method) at 0, 1, 2, 4, and 8 h after drug administration. Changes in daily food intake and fecal output after hydromorphone administration were recorded. At 2 mg/kg SC, but not at lower dosages, hydromorphone increased withdrawal latencies for less than 4 h. Food intake was reduced after all 3 dosages, and fecal output decreased in the 1- and 2-mg/kg groups. The decreases in these parameters were dose-dependent, with the greatest reduction measured over the first 24 h. Our current results indicate that hydromorphone at 2 mg/kg SC is an effective, short-acting analgesic drug in chinchillas that transiently reduces food intake and fecal output. Further studies are needed to evaluate the safety of hydromorphone in animals undergoing surgical procedures and general anesthesia and to determine whether lower doses provide analgesia in different nociceptive models.

Objective: To compare dexmedetomidine-midazolam with alfaxalone-midazolam for sedation in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius)., Study Design: Prospective, randomized, blinded, complete crossover study., Animals: Nine healthy adult leopard geckos., Methods: Geckos were administered a combination of dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg kg -1 ) and midazolam (1.0 mg kg -1 ; treatment D-M) or alfaxalone (15 mg kg -1 ) and midazolam (1.0 mg kg -1 ; treatment A-M) subcutaneously craniodorsal to a thoracic limb. Heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (f R ), righting reflex, palpebral reflex, superficial and deep pain reflexes, jaw tone and escape response were assessed every 5 minutes until reversal. Conditions for intubation and response to needle prick were evaluated. Antagonist drugs [flumazenil (0.05 mg kg -1 ) ± atipamezole (1.0 mg kg -1 )] were administered subcutaneously, craniodorsal to the contralateral thoracic limb, 45 minutes after initial injection, and animals were monitored until recovery., Results: HR, but not f R , decreased significantly over time in both treatments. HR was significantly lower than baseline at all time points in D-M and for all but the 5 and 10 minute time points in A-M. HR was significantly higher in A-M at all time points after drug administration when compared with D-M. Sedation scores between protocols were similar for most time points. All animals in A-M lost righting reflex compared with seven out of nine (78%) geckos in D-M. Geckos in A-M lost righting reflex for significantly longer time. Mean ± standard deviation time to recovery after antagonist administration was 6.1 ± 2.2 minutes for D-M and 56 ± 29 minutes for A-M, and these times were significantly different., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Combination D-M or A-M provided sedation of a level expected to allow physical examinations and venipuncture in leopard geckos. A-M provided a faster onset of sedation compared with D-M. Recovery was significantly faster following antagonist reversal of D-M, compared with A-M., (Copyright © 2017 Association of Veterinary Anaesthetists and American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Companion birds are increasingly living longer due to improved husbandry, nutrition, and veterinary care. As a consequence, a growing number of geriatric disease conditions are diagnosed and managed by veterinarians. Awareness of bird owners of diagnostic and treatment options for neoplastic diseases in humans and domestic animals has led to increasing demand to provide advanced diagnostic and treatment modalities for companion birds diagnosed with neoplasia. Treatment remains challenging in many companion birds due to the lack of information regarding prognosis and efficacy of antineoplastic treatments in these species. There is no established standard of care for most tumors in companion birds., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Dental disease is among the most common causes for chinchillas and degus to present to veterinarians. Most animals with dental disease present with weight loss, reduced food intake/anorexia, and drooling. Degus commonly present with dyspnea. Dental disease has been primarily referred to as elongation and malocclusion of the cheek teeth. Periodontal disease, caries, and tooth resorption are common diseases in chinchillas, but are missed frequently during routine intraoral examination, even performed under general anesthesia. A diagnostic evaluation, including endoscopy-guided intraoral examination and diagnostic imaging of the skull, is necessary to detect oral disorders and to perform the appropriate therapy., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The care of wounds in exotic animal species can be a challenging endeavor. Special considerations must be made in regard to the animal's temperament and behavior, unique anatomy and small size, and tendency toward secondary stress-related health problems. It is important to assess the entire patient with adequate systemic evaluation and consideration of proper nutrition and husbandry, which could ultimately affect wound healing. This article summarizes the general phases of wound healing, factors that affect healing, and principles of wound management. Emphasis is placed on novel methods of treating wounds and species differences in wound management and healing., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The objective of this study was to compare isoflurane with a combination of dexmedetomidine and ketamine, administered intramuscularly, for anesthesia in chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera). In a prospective, complete crossover study, adult chinchillas (n = 8; age, 2 to 5 y) were anesthetized with a combination of dexmedetomidine (0.015 mg/kg IM) and ketamine (4 mg/kg IM). Atipamezole (0.15 mg/kg) was injected subcutaneously 45 min after dexmedetomidine-ketamine administration. For comparison, anesthesia also was induced and maintained with isoflurane in 100% oxygen, delivered by facemask. Anesthetic and physiologic parameters were recorded during each anesthesia, including various reflexes, heart rate, respiratory rate, body temperature, and SpO2. Food intake, fecal output, and body weight were recorded daily for 6 d after each anesthetic trial. Induction time, heart rate, respiratory rate, and body temperature did not differ significantly between the 2 anesthetic protocols. Recovery times were shorter and SpO2 was higher in animals that received isoflurane delivered in 100% oxygen. Food intake and fecal output were reduced in the dexmedetomidine-ketamine group for as long as 3 d after anesthesia, whereas isoflurane had no signifcant effect on food intake or fecal output. Both anesthetic protocols provided effective anesthesia in chinchillas. However, when anesthetized with dexmedetomidine-ketamine, chinchillas received room air and became hypoxemic. Future studies are needed to evaluate the effect of oxygen supplementation on anesthetic recovery and on the recovery of food intake and fecal output in chinchillas.

The surgical approach to reptiles can be challenging. Reptiles have unique physiologic, anatomic, and pathologic differences. This may result in frustrating surgical experiences. However, recent investigations provided novel, less invasive, surgical techniques. The purpose of this review was to describe the technical aspects behind soft tissue surgical techniques that have been used in reptiles, so as to provide a general guideline for veterinarians working with reptiles., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Otitis externa and media are frequently diagnosed disorders in rabbits and are particularly common in lop-eared breeds because of the specific anatomy of the ear canal. Medical management for otitis externa and media often provides only a temporary improvement in clinical signs. Surgery by means of partial or total ear canal ablation (PECA or TECA) combined with lateral bulla osteotomy (LBO) represents a feasible approach that is well tolerated and provides a good clinical outcome. Short-term complications associated with PECA/TECA-LBO include facial nerve paralysis and vestibular disease., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Nutritional disorders of captive reptiles remain very common despite the increasing knowledge about reptile husbandry and nutrition. Many nutritional disorders are diagnosed late in the disease process; often secondary complications, such as pathologic fractures in reptiles suffering from nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism have occurred. Therefore, every attempt should be made to educate reptile owners and keepers about the proper care and dietary needs of reptiles under their care because all nutritional disorders seen in captive reptiles are preventable., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Egg retention in the urinary bladder of a leopard tortoise was diagnosed by radiography and confirmed by cystoscopy. The egg was removed with a modified polypectomy snare, aided by a flexible endoscope and insufflation. No complications occurred during the procedures and the tortoise made a complete recovery.

Pet birds suffer from a wide range of reproductive conditions and diseases. Chronic egg laying, egg binding, and excessive reproductive activities are common problems. Veterinarians may prescribe behavior modification, changes in captive care, and medical therapy to curb these behaviors. Surgical removal of the oviduct is effective at stopping egg production; however, it is a specialized surgery that carries surgical and anesthetic-related risks. The inability to surgically remove the ovary in birds may result in persistent ovarian activity and secondary complications. Therefore, hormone therapy as an adjunct or main therapeutic approach, using sustained-release GnRH agonists, shows promise in pet birds., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Chinchillas have been successfully maintained in captivity for almost a century. They have only recently been recognized as excellent, long-lived, and robust pets. Most of the literature on diseases of chinchillas comes from farmed chinchillas, whereas reports of pet chinchilla diseases continue to be sparse. This review aims to provide information on current, poorly reported disorders of pet chinchillas, such as penile problems, urolithiasis, periodontal disease, otitis media, cardiac disease, pseudomonadal infections, and giardiasis. This review is intended to serve as a complement to current veterinary literature while providing valuable and clinically relevant information for veterinarians treating chinchillas., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

A 6-year-old castrated male domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) with a 4-week history of intermittent diarrhea and straining during defecation had an intraluminal mass in the descending colon identified by abdominal ultrasound. The histopathological diagnosis of the resected mass was an adenomatous polyp of the colon. No post-operative complications were identified over a 32-month follow-up period.

In avian species, reproductive disorders and undesirable behaviors commonly reflect abnormalities in the neuroendocrine regulation of the reproductive system. Current treatment options are often disappointing, show no long-lasting effect, or have significant side effects. A possible reason for our lack of success is a dearth of knowledge of the underlying neuroendocrine, behavioral, and autonomous physiology of the reproductive processes. Tremendous progress has been made in the last few years in our understanding of the neuroendocrine control of reproduction in birds. Advantage should be taken of these experimentally derived data to develop appropriate and safe treatment protocols for avian patients suffering from reproductive disorders.