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Multidomain proteinase inhibitors play critical roles in the defense of plants against predation by a wide range of pests. Despite a wealth of structural information on proteinase-single domain inhibitor interactions, the structural basis of inhibition by multidomain proteinase inhibitors remains poorly understood. Here we report the 2.5-A resolution crystal structure of the two-headed tomato inhibitor-II (TI-II) in complex with two molecules of subtilisin Carlsberg; it reveals how a multidomain inhibitor from the Potato II family of proteinase inhibitors can bind to and simultaneously inhibit two enzyme molecules within a single ternary complex. The N terminus of TI-II initiates the folding of Domain I (Lys-1 to Cys-15 and Pro-84 to Met-123) and then completes Domain II (Ile-26 to Pro-74) before coming back to complete the rest of Domain I (Pro-84 to Met-123). The two domains of TI-II adopt a similar fold and are arranged in an extended configuration that presents two reactive site loops at the opposite ends of the inhibitor molecule. Each subtilisin molecule interacts with a reactive site loop of TI-II through the standard, canonical binding mode. Remarkably, a significant distortion of the active site of subtilisin is induced by the presence of phenylalanine in the P1 position of reactive site loop II of TI-II. The structure of the TI-II.(subtilisin)2 complex provides a molecular framework for understanding how multiple inhibitory domains in a single Potato II type proteinase inhibitor molecule from the Potato II family act to inhibit proteolytic enzymes.

The malarial aspartic proteinases (plasmepsins) have been discovered in several species of Plasmodium, including all four of the human malarial pathogens. In P.falciparum, plasmepsins I, II, IV and HAP have been directly implicated in hemoglobin degradation during malaria infection, and are now considered targets for anti-malarial drug design. The plasmepsins are produced from inactive zymogens, proplasmepsins, having unusually long N-terminal prosegments of more than 120 amino acids. Structural and biochemical evidence suggests that the conversion process of proplasmepsins to plasmepsins differs substantially from the gastric and plant aspartic proteinases. Instead of blocking substrate access to a pre-formed active site, the prosegment enforces a conformation in which proplasmepsin cannot form a functional active site. We have determined crystal structures of plasmepsin and proplasmepsin from P.vivax. The three-dimensional structure of P.vivax plasmepsin is typical of the monomeric aspartic proteinases, and the structure of P.vivax proplasmepsin is similar to that of P.falciparum proplasmepsin II. A dramatic refolding of the mature N terminus and a large (18 degrees ) reorientation of the N-domain between P.vivax proplasmepsin and plasmepsin results in a severe distortion of the active site region of the zymogen relative to that of the mature enzyme. The present structures confirm that the mode of inactivation observed originally in P.falciparum proplasmepsin II, i.e. an incompletely formed active site, is a true structural feature and likely represents the general mode of inactivation of the related proplasmepsins.

In humans, two major beta-hexosaminidase isoenzymes exist: Hex A and Hex B. Hex A is a heterodimer of subunits alpha and beta (60% identity), whereas Hex B is a homodimer of beta-subunits. Interest in human beta-hexosaminidase stems from its association with Tay-Sachs and Sandhoff disease; these are prototypical lysosomal storage disorders resulting from the abnormal accumulation of G(M2)-ganglioside (G(M2)). Hex A degrades G(M2) by removing a terminal N-acetyl-D-galactosamine (beta-GalNAc) residue, and this activity requires the G(M2)-activator, a protein which solubilizes the ganglioside for presentation to Hex A. We present here the crystal structure of human Hex B, alone (2.4A) and in complex with the mechanistic inhibitors GalNAc-isofagomine (2.2A) or NAG-thiazoline (2.5A). From these, and the known X-ray structure of the G(M2)-activator, we have modeled Hex A in complex with the activator and ganglioside. Together, our crystallographic and modeling data demonstrate how alpha and beta-subunits dimerize to form either Hex A or Hex B, how these isoenzymes hydrolyze diverse substrates, and how many documented point mutations cause Sandhoff disease (beta-subunit mutations) and Tay-Sachs disease (alpha-subunit mutations).

X-ray crystal structures of two non-nucleoside analogue inhibitors bound to hepatitis C virus NS5B RNA-dependent RNA polymerase have been determined to 2.0 and 2.9 A resolution. These noncompetitive inhibitors bind to the same site on the protein, approximately 35 A from the active site. The common features of binding include a large hydrophobic region and two hydrogen bonds between both oxygen atoms of a carboxylate group on the inhibitor and two main chain amide nitrogen atoms of Ser(476) and Tyr(477) on NS5B. The inhibitor-binding site lies at the base of the thumb domain, near its interface with the C-terminal extension of NS5B. The location of this inhibitor-binding site suggests that the binding of these inhibitors interferes with a conformational change essential for the activity of the polymerase.

SpHex, a retaining family 20 glycosidase from Streptomyces plicatus, catalyzes the hydrolysis of N-acetyl-beta-hexosaminides. Accumulating evidence suggests that the hydrolytic mechanism involves substrate-assisted catalysis wherein the 2-acetamido substituent acts as a nucleophile to form an oxazolinium ion intermediate. The role of a conserved aspartate residue (D313) in the active site of SpHex was investigated through kinetic and structural analyses of two variant enzymes, D313A and D313N. Three-dimensional structures of the wild-type and variant enzymes in product complexes with N-acetyl-d-glucosamine revealed substantial differences. In the D313A variant the 2-acetamido group was found in two conformations of which only one is able to aid in catalysis through anchimeric assistance. The mutation D313N results in a steric clash in the active site between Asn-313 and the 2-acetamido group preventing the 2-acetamido group from providing anchimeric assistance, consistent with the large reduction in catalytic efficiency and the insensitivity of this variant to chemical rescue. By comparison, the D313A mutation results in a shift in a shift in the pH optimum and a modest decrease in activity that can be rescued by using azide as an exogenous nucleophile. These structural and kinetic data provide evidence that Asp-313 stabilizes the transition states flanking the oxazoline intermediate and also assists to correctly orient the 2-acetamido group for catalysis. Based on analogous conserved residues in the family 18 chitinases and family 56 hyaluronidases, the roles played by the Asp-313 residue is likely general for all hexosaminidases using a mechanism involving substrate-assisted catalysis.

Arteriviruses are enveloped, positive-stranded RNA viruses and include pathogens of major economic concern to the swine- and horse-breeding industries. The arterivirus replicase gene encodes two large precursor polyproteins that are processed by the viral main proteinase nonstructural protein 4 (nsp4). The three-dimensional structure of the 21-kDa nsp4 from the arterivirus prototype equine arteritis virus has been determined to 2.0 A resolution. Nsp4 adopts the smallest known chymotrypsin-like fold with a canonical catalytic triad of Ser-120, His-39, and Asp-65, as well as a novel alpha/beta C-terminal extension domain that may play a role in mediating protein-protein interactions. In different copies of nsp4 in the asymmetric unit, the oxyanion hole adopts either a collapsed inactive conformation or the standard active conformation, which may be a novel way of regulating proteolytic activity.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) 3C enzyme is a picornaviral cysteine proteinase involved in the processing of the initially synthesized viral polyprotein and is therefore important for viral maturation and infectivity. Although it is a cysteine proteinase, this enzyme has a topology similar to those of the chymotrypsin-like serine proteinases. Since the enzyme recognizes peptide substrates with a glutamine residue at the P(1) site, a number of ketone-containing glutamine compounds analogous to nanomolar inhibitors of cathepsin K were synthesized and tested for inhibition against HAV 3C proteinase. In addition, a 3-azetidinone scaffold was incorporated into the glutamine fragment but gave only modest inhibition. However, introduction of a phthalhydrazido group alpha to the ketone moiety gave significantly better inhibitors with IC(50) values ranging from 13 to 164 microM, presumably due to the effect of intramolecular hydrogen bonding to the ketone. In addition, the tetrapeptide phthalhydrazide 24 was found to be a competitive reversible inhibitor (K(i) = 9 x 10(-6) M) and also showed no loss of inhibitory potency in the presence of dithiothreitol.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) 3C enzyme is a cysteine proteinase essential for viral replication and infectivity and represents a target for the development of antiviral drugs. A number of serine and threonine beta-lactones were synthesized and tested against HAV 3C proteinase. The D-N-Cbz-serine beta-lactone 5a displays competitive reversible inhibition with a K(i) value of 1.50 x 10(-6) M. Its enantiomer, L-N-Cbz-serine beta-lactone 5b is an irreversible inactivator with k(inact) = 0.70 min(-1), K(Iota) = 1.84 x 10(-4) M and k(inact)/K(Iota) = 3800 M(-1) min(-1). Mass spectrometry and HMQC NMR studies using (13)C-labeled 5b show that inactivation of the enzyme occurs by nucleophilic attack of the cysteine thiol (Cys-172) at the beta-position of the oxetanone ring. Although the N-Cbz-serine beta-lactones 5a and 5b display potent inhibition, other related analogues with an N-Cbz side chain, such as the five-membered ring homoserine gamma-lactones 14a and 14b, the four-membered ring beta-lactam 33, 2-methylene oxetane 34, cyclobutanone 36, and 3-azetidinone 39, fail to give significant inhibition of HAV 3C proteinase, thus demonstrating the importance of the beta-lactone ring for binding.

The structure of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) from the rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus has been determined by x-ray crystallography to a 2.5-A resolution. The overall structure resembles a "right hand," as seen before in other polymerases, including the RdRPs of polio virus and hepatitis C virus. Two copies of the polymerase are present in the asymmetric unit of the crystal, revealing active and inactive conformations within the same crystal form. The fingers and palm domains form a relatively rigid unit, but the thumb domain can adopt either "closed" or "open" conformations differing by a rigid body rotation of approximately 8 degrees. Metal ions bind at different positions in the two conformations and suggest how structural changes may be important to enzymatic function in RdRPs. Comparisons between the structures of the alternate conformational states of rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus RdRP and the structures of RdRPs from hepatitis C virus and polio virus suggest novel structure-function relationships in this medically important class of enzymes.