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A food-packaging database was developed to provide qualitative information on the types of packaging materials used for foods. Packaging information was collected from a sample of 594 children aged 5-12 years as part of a national children's food survey carried out in Ireland during 2003-04. All the food packaging collected during the survey was forwarded to the coordinating centre for further analysis and entry into the Irish Food Packaging Database. The database was created in Microsoft Access and stored information on: the brand of the food, the packaging type, the unit weight, the contact layer, the European Union food type (i.e. aqueous, acidic, alcoholic or fatty) and other relevant parameters. Of the 5551 different brand foods consumed by children in the food survey, packaging information was collected on 3441 (62%). As some brand foods had different unit weights and packaging formats, there was duplication of some brand foods in the database to account for this fact. Therefore, there were 3672 packaging entries in the database. Of these, plastics were the most common packaging contact layer (n = 2874, 78.3%). Multimaterial multilayers with a plastic contact layer accounted for 459 (12.5%) entries. Polyethylene was the most frequently used contact layer (n = 941), with polypropylene a close second (n = 809). This database is unique in Europe for the quality and amount of food packaging information it contains and could be used to develop packaging use factors for a more refined exposure assessment to food packaging materials in the European Union.

In the European Union (EU), many assumptions are employed to calculate the intake of migrating chemicals from food packaging. However, very little is known about the actual intake of packaged food, the type of this food and the type of packaging used for this food. The objective of the current study was to examine intakes of packaged food in children aged 5-12 years to provide information on the types of food that are packaged and the type of packaging used. To do this, a food-consumption database, which also recorded information on packaging, was merged with a packaging database, which provided information on the contact layers of packaging. Foods were classified into EU Food categories according to European Council Directive EC 85/575/EEC (European Council 1985), which determined their food type (i.e. aqueous, acidic, alcoholic and fatty). The mean daily intake of all packaged food was 1195 g day-1 with an upper intake of 1959 g day-1 (97.5th percentile); the intake of food packaged in plastic was 993 g day-1 with an upper percentile of 1692 g day-1 (97.5th percentile). The mean daily intake of fat from all packaged food was 62 g day-1, with an upper intake of 100 g day-1 (97.5th percentile). When this was investigated further, it was found that the mean fat intake from packaged 'fatty' foods only was 32 g day-1, with an upper intake of 61 g day-1 (97.5th percentile). The food that contributed most to fat intake was milk. As many food chemical intake assessments are moving towards probabilistic methods, probabilities of a food being packaged and the probability of the type of packaging used were determined. The probability of food being packaged was 0.88. Some foods not 100% packaged included fruit, vegetables, liquid beverages non-alcoholic (includes water) and bread. Probabilities were also derived for the packaging types used for food. It can be concluded that not all the individual assumptions used in the EU exposure assessment are conservative, but in combination they are conservative.

Food texture affects chewing movement but it is not known if it also affects the chewing-side pattern. This study determined the chewing sides of three test foods with different textures during habitual chewing. Twenty healthy dental students (aged 20-24 years) chewed pieces of pork jerky, fresh asparagus and almonds on two separate sessions (1 week apart). In each session, each subject chewed 30 food specimens, 10 of the same food type, until swallowing while a video camera recorded the displacement of the chin with respect to the other two reference points vertically marked along the facial midline. A slow-speed video playback was used to identify the chewing side of each cycle. The chewing-side pattern (right preference, left preference, no preference) in each individual was determined statistically. The results showed that overall, 11 subjects did not have any side preference whereas six and three subjects preferred to chew on right or left sides respectively. The chewing-side pattern remained unchanged between three food types in about half of the subjects. When the same food was compared between 2 days, the chewing-side pattern of almonds was shown to be most reproducible (18 subjects). Unidentified cycles with little or no lateral displacement, labelled as bilateral, were observed more frequently near the end of the chewing sequence with more occurrences in almonds and jerky than asparagus (P < 0.01). It was suggested that chewing-side preference is not a fixed characteristic. Food texture seemed to influence the side preference and also the occurrence of bilateral cycles.

Because plate waste reduces nutritional benefits of school lunches, the objective of this study was to determine the factors that influence waste. Lunches of 743 sixth graders in three middle schools were photographed after students made food selections and after eating. Sample items were purchased to determine initial portion weights. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences software (Base 10.0, 1995, SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL) was used for statistical analysis. Preparation method influenced acceptance rates and plate waste: Whole apples had lower acceptance (23%) and greater waste (62%) compared with applesauce (37% acceptance, 23% waste). Mashed potatoes and heated fries had similar acceptance (approximately 69%), but mashed potatoes were wasted less (19% vs 33%, respectively). Students who purchased competitive food items with lunch (n=250) had significantly greater waste of fruits (52% vs 36%, respectively, P =.0001), grain products (26% vs 14%, respectively, P =.009), meats (25% vs 16%, respectively, P =.015), and mixed dishes (30% vs 18%, respectively, P =.0001). Changing preparation methods and limiting availability of competitive food items may reduce plate waste.

Animals often face complex and changing food environments. While such environments are challenging, an animal should make an association between a food type and its properties (such as the presence of a nutrient or toxin). We use information theory concepts, such as mutual information, to establish a theory for the development of these associations. In this theory, associations are assumed to maximize the mutual information between foods and their consequences. We show that associations are invariably imperfect. An association's accuracy increases with the length of a feeding session and the relative frequency of a food type but decreases as time delay between consumption and postingestive consequence increases. Surprisingly, the accuracy of an association is independent of the number of additional food types in the environment. The rate of information transfer between novel foods and a forager depends on the forager's diet. In light of this theory, an animal's diet may have two competing goals: first, the provision of an appropriate balance of nutrients, and second, the ability to quickly and accurately learn the properties of novel foods. We discuss the ecological and behavioral implications of making associational errors and contrast the timescale and mechanisms of our theory with those of existing theory.

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an important monomer used in the manufacture of epoxy resins for internal food can linings. Experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of different storage conditions and can damage on the migration of BPA to foods. These experiments were conducted in a systematic fashion by filling empty epoxyphenolic coated cans with four foods: soup, minced beef, evaporated milk and carrots and a food simulant (10% ethanol). Filled cans of each food type or simulant were then sealed and processed using appropriate conditions, before storage at three different temperatures: 5 degrees C, 20 degrees C and 40 degrees C. For each of the storage regimes, 50% of the cans were dented to establish if this would lead to increased BPA migration. Cans were removed from these stocks at intervals of 1, 3 and 9 months storage at 5 degrees C and 20 degrees C or 10 days, 1 and 3 months at 40 degrees C. Some initial problems of heterogeneity between samples was overcome by determining the amount of BPA in food as well as in the can lining. It was found that 80-100% of the total BPA present in the coating had migrated to foods directly after can processing by pilot plant filling with food or simulant, sealing and sterilization. This level was not changed by extended storage (up to 9 months) or can damage, indicating most migration was occurring during the can processing step. There was no noticeable difference, in this respect, between the different foods or the food simulant. Analysis of control samples (foods fortified with approximately 0.1 mg kg(-1) BPA and contained in Schott bottles) showed that BPA was stable under both processing and storage. Experiments were also conducted to investigate the potential effects, on the migration of BPA from can coatings, of cooking or heating foods in the can prior to consumption. Food cans were purchased and the food either cooked or heated in the can. BPA was analysed prior to and after the heating/cooking process. It was concluded from the results that there were no appreciable differences in the BPA level before and after cooking or heating.

Crops were analysed and dietary components identified from a total of 175 quails (Coturnix catumix) sampled on several farms in the Alexandria district (Eastern Cape) during Sept 1994-Sept 1995. Quail were found to feed primarily on forb seeds and insects. Diet did not vary between male and female quail, but varied seasonally, with a decrease in seed consumption during the period of peak quail abundance and breeding (October-November), when insect consumption increased. Overall, seed was the dominant food type (both in frequency and quantity). Quail have a seasonally varied diet, relying on seeds of forbs characteristic of cultivated and fallow fields.

Adaptive hypotheses for the evolution of flocking in birds have usually focused on predation avoidance or foraging enhancement. It still remains unclear to what extent each factor has contributed to the evolution of flocking. If predation avoidance were the sole factor involved, flocking should not be prevalent when predation is relaxed. I examined flocking tendencies along with mean and maximum flock size in species living on islands where predation risk is either absent or negligible and then compared these results with matched counterparts on the mainland. The dataset consisted of 46 pairs of species from 22 different islands across the world. The tendency to flock was retained on islands in most species, but in pairs with dissimilar flocking tendencies, island species were less likely to flock. Mean and maximum flock size were smaller on islands than on the mainland. Potential confounding factors such as population density, nest predation, habitat type, food type and body mass failed to account for the results. The results suggest that predation is a significant factor in the evolution of flocking in birds. Nevertheless, predation and other factors, such as foraging enhancement, probably act together to maintain the trait in most species.

A multilaboratory study was conducted to compare the automated BAX® system and the standard cultural methods for detection of Listeria monocytogenes in foods. Six food types (frankfurters, soft cheese, smoked salmon, raw, ground beef, fresh radishes, and frozen peas) were analyzed by each method. For each food type, 3 inoculation levels were tested: high (average of 2 CFU/g), low (average of 0.2 CFU/g) and uninoculated controls. A total of 25 laboratories representing government and industry participated. Of the 2335 samples analyzed, 1109 were positive by the BAX system and 1115 were positive by the standard method. A Chi square analysis of each of the 6 food types, at the 3 inoculation levels tested, was performed. For all foods, except radishes, the BAX system performed as well as or better than the standard reference methods based on the Chi square results.

Rats were trained on a biconditional discrimination in which the delivery of a food pellet stimulus signalled that pressing on one of two levers would be reinforced, whereas the delivery of a sucrose solution stimulus signalled that the reward was contingent on pressing the other lever. The outcome was the same food type as the discriminative stimulus in the congruent group but the other food type in the incongruent group. Both responses were rewarded with the same outcome in the same group. All the three groups learned the discrimination at statistically indistinguishable rates. Prefeeding one of the outcomes selectively reduced the associated response thereby demonstrating that responding was mediated by a representation of the outcome. Moreover, the outcome of one trial controlled responding on the next trial in accord with the stimulus function of the food type. These results are discussed in relation to the associative structures mediating the discriminative control of instrumental performance.

Following harvest, slaughter, or manufacture, all foods lose quality at a rate that varies in a manner that is very dependent on food type, composition, formulation (for manufactured foods), packaging, and storage conditions. The potential for this loss of quality may occur at any of the many stages between the acquisition of raw materials and the eventual consumption of a finished product. These stages include: raw material storage; product formulation; processing; packaging; storage in the factory; distribution to depots; further storage; distribution to retail outlets; display in shops and stores; sale to the consumer; transport to the home; storage in the home; preparation for consumption; and consumption (Gould, 1989a).

taxa de evacuação gástrica é uma variável importante para estimar o consumo diário de alimento e portanto a pressão de predação que um piscívoro exerce sobre as presas. Esta taxa pode ser influenciada pela temperatura, tamanho do predador e pelo tipo de alimento. Neste trabalho medimos experimentalmente os efeitos que estas três variáveis exercem sobre a evacuação gástrica de Pygocentrus nattereri, um dos principais piscívoros da Amazônia. Para isso foram utilizadas temperaturas variando de 27° a 31°C e os seguintes itens alimentares: músculo e nadadeira de Semaprochilodus insignis e gafanhoto da espécie Paulinia sp. Estes alimentos compõem a dieta silvestre da piranha. O tamanho da piranha não influenciou na evacuação gástrica. Músculos obtiveram uma taxa de evacuação gástrica de 18,3% h -1, enquanto que nadadeira e gafanhoto obtiveram uma taxa média de 10,7% h -1. O efeito da temperatura foi mais pronunciado quando o item alimentar era músculo do que com nadadeira e insetos. The gastric evacuation rate is an important variable to measure the daily ration and feeding rhythm therefore, the predation pressure of a piscivorous fish. The evacuation can be influenced by temperature, predator size and food type. In this paper it is presented experimental data of the effect of three food types in Pygocentrus nattereri, a main piscivorous amazonian fish. The temperature ranged from 27 to 31°C and three food items were used (fish muscle, fish fin rays and insect). These food items are ordinarily consumed by the piranha. Predator size had no effect on gastric evacuation. Fish muscles were evacuated at rate of 18.3% h -1, while fish fin and insect average ratio 10.7% h -1. The gastric evacuation increased with temperature. The effect of temperature was more pronounced on fish muscle than in fish fin or insect.

Although feral rock doves Columba livia and rock pigeons C. guineafly daily in mixed flocks between roosting and nesting sites in Cape Town, South Africa, they feed separately in farmlands north of the city during the austral summer. Examination of the crop contents of 32 feral rock doves and 48 rock pigeons revealed that 28 (88%) of the feral rock doves had fed on processed cereals, whereas all 48 (100%) of the rock pigeons had eaten whole wheat. The processed cereals were obtained from dairy cattle feedlots, whereas the whole wheat is waste, found within the stubble. There is equal nutritional advantage from feeding on both food types, and feral rock doves have no apparent preference for either food type. This differential feeding behaviour suggests resource partitioning, and that introduced feral rock doves do not displace indigenous rock pigeons from summer food sources in the south-western Cape Province.

An evaluation of food type and texture indicated that both variables affected the expulsions of a 3-year-old with feeding problems. The results of the evaluation were used to prescribe a treatment (reducing the texture of one food type) that reduced expulsion.

Table 2 Study 2: Expected liking ratings by food type and food rated. Baseline expected liking (0–10 score) Mismatch between actual and expected liking (0–10 score) Change in expected (0–10 score) Disappointing consumption experience Infrequently eaten food 6.4 (1.8) 2.3 (1.3) 1.8 (1.6) Frequently eaten food 8.6 (1.0) 2.2 (1.7) 0.7 (1.3) No consumption experience Infrequently eaten food 5.4 (3.0) – 0.6 (1.6) Frequently eaten food 8.3 (1.4) – 0.3 (0.8) Not disappointing consumption experience Infrequently eaten food 5.7 (2.7) 0.2 (0.8) 0.1 (0.9) Frequently eaten food 7.4 (2.7) 0.3 (0.3) 0.4 (1.3)

Objective : To develop the (1) simplest, most efficacious, mineral (phosphorous, potassium, and sodium) reduction procedures applicable to a total dietary selection of foods that will (2) preserve postprocessing food taste and texture expectations. Design : Preprocessing and postprocessing mineral analysis of more than 245 individual samples. Setting : Analysis of mineral content performed at certified food laboratory in Omaha, NE. Participants : Renal and control volunteers participated as postprocessing test consumers. Intervention : Food materials were subjected to aqueous mineral extraction involving variations in (1) pretreatment handling, (2) aqueous temperatures, and time depending on cell type and initial state (raw, canned, dried). Measurements of remaining mineral concentrations of phosphorous, potassium, and sodium were performed on samples drawn at various time points. Main outcome measure : Determination of remaining postprocessing concentrations of target minerals and calculation of the maximum mineral reduction achieved with each food type. Results : The phosphorous reduction range for vegetables, legumes, meats, flours, and cheddar cheese was 51% ± 33%, 48% ± 25%, 38.5% ± 22.5%, 70.5% ± 13.5%, and 19%, respectively; for potassium, the reduction range for vegetables, legumes, meats, flours, cheddar cheese, and fruit was 59% ± 40%, 78.5% ± 20.5%, 57% ± 41%, 94% ± 3%, 99%, and 43% ± 16%, respectively; for sodium, the reduction range for vegetables, meats, and cheddar cheese was 83.5% ± 14.5%, 67.5% ± 27.5%, and 97%, respectively. Conclusion : Consuming a total dietary selection of demineralized foods is expected to have a significant positive impact on the renal patient's problematic hematologic mineral values and nutritional profile. Reducing food mineral load will make restricted foods permissible once again.

The rate of food ingestion by fish in an impulse-input type model is represented as a unit impulse or Dirac delta function. It is assumed that depending on the of food type, the stomach has a limited capacity. Maximal meal size is equal to the difference between the maximum stomach capacity and the food containing within, at any given feeding time. The content of the stomach of a single fish during 20 days is simulated by the impulse-input feeding model. Feeding frequency and meal size are randomly generated, while an exponential model describes gastric evacuation. Daily ration is determined from food quantities in the stomach at time intervals of 2, 3, 4 and 6 h, with five well-known food consumption equations. Lowest errors were shown by the Elliott and Persson equation and the second Eggers equation. The first Eggers equation showed the highest error. The first Eggers equation was associated with differences between the content of the stomach at the end and beginning of the sampling period (0–24 h).

Animal feeding can be positioned in a gradient from roughage such as bark and old grass (detrivores-folivores) to meat-eaters (carnivores), over, e.g., fungivores and granivores. Humans occupy a position between granivores and carnivores. Granivores and carnivores are not able to eat food with thick plant cell walls and are thus restricted in their options during severe seasons. The wood mouse is considered as a wild equivalent of humans and its seasonal and annual variation in food is described. Animals often ‘sample’ food for nutritious items, being reinforced by internal stimuli, but also react directly on chemical cues as fatty substances, sucrose, alcohol and certain minerals. Plants defend themselves from being eaten by mechanical and chemical means, e.g. alkaloids and phenolic substances. Animals switch between food types according to density and often concentrate in patches with high availability. Animals try to keep lean to be mobile and able to avoid predation.

As estimativas do coeficiente de herdabilidade são importantes para a escolha de uma estratégia eficaz de seleção. Quando os tratamentos são considerados fixos, a herdabilidade é denominada coeficiente de determinação genotípica. Os objetivos do presente trabalho foram estimar, através de topocruzamentos obtidos entre soja tipo alimento e soja tipo grão, o coeficiente de determinação genotípica e avaliar a diversidade genética de modo a se distinguir diferenças de contribuição dos parentais de soja tipo alimento com sementes grandes e com sementes pequenas usados nos topocruzamentos, assim como avaliar a interação de cada grupo com o ambiente. Os resultados de determinação genotípica obtidos nas médias de topocruzamentos foram: 90,51% com relação ao número de dias para maturidade (NDM); 93,92% com relação à altura da planta na maturidade (APM); 79,52% com relação ao acamamento (AC); 91,37% ao valor agronômico (VA); 95,55% ao peso de cem sementes (PCS); 57,57% à produtividade de grãos (PG), e 91,18% à largura visual das vagens (LVV), enquadrando-se aos valores encontrados na literatura. Em relação às estimativas de diversidade genética, que representam a disponibilidade de diferenças genéticas para seleção, os caracteres NDM, APM e AC apresentaram valores maiores nos topocruzamentos envolvendo parentais exóticos de sementes pequenas e para VA, PCS, PG e LVV nos topocruzamentos envolvendo parentais exóticos de sementes grandes. The estimates of the heritability coefficient are necessary for the choice of an efficient strategy of selection. When the treatments are considered fixed, the heritability is called genotypic determination coefficient. In the present work the genotypic determination coefficient and the genetic diversity to distinguish the differences between genetic contribution of exotic parentals from type food soybean with great seeds and small seeds in topcrosses with two adopted type grain parentals and the interactions with the environment were studied. The results of genotypic determination for the topcross averages was 90.51% for number of days for maturity (NDM); 93.92% for height of the plant at maturity (APM); 79.52% for lodging (AC); 91.37% for agronomic value (VA); 95.55% for one hundred seed weight (PCS); 57.57% for seed yield (PG) and 91.18% for pod width by visual score (LVV), that agree with the values found in literature. In relation to the estimates of genetic diversity, that represent the availability of genetic differences for selection, the characters NDM, APM and AC, showed higher values in the small seed of exotic parental topcrosses and for VA, PCS, PG and LVV in the great seeds of exotic parental topcrosses.

In order to improve methods to investigate individual variation in responses of cattle toward novel food, the influence of food type offered to neighbors and time of testing were investigated in tethered heifers. Twenty-four Danish Friesian heifers were used in two 2 x 3 factorial experiments, using 8 kg of a mixed ration (grass silage and concentrates) and 4.5 kg of carrots as a novel food. The factors were 1) time of testing: heifers tested at usual feeding time (1000) vs after 30 min with access to their usual food; and 2) food type of neighbors: either no food, novel food, or usual food. During the 30-min period with novel food in front of them, the behavior of the experimental heifers was video recorded. Testing at usual feeding time led to a tendency to increase the latency to eat the mixed ration (P = 0.08), a tendency to reduce intake of the mixed ration (P = 0.08), increased frequency and duration of sniffing carrots (P = 0.1 and P = 0.02, respectively), increased duration of sniffing the mixed ration (P = 0.05), and decreased frequency and duration of disturbance from neighbors (carrots: P = 0.0002 and P = 0.003). The food type of the neighbors did not have major influence on the behavioral reactivity. For both the mixed ration and carrots, the frequency of eating was increased when the neighbors got novel food rather than their usual food (P = 0.01 and P = 0.02). However, the frequency and duration of disturbance from neighbors was increased when no food was offered to the neighbors (carrots: P = 0.001; mixed ration: P = 0.01 and P = 0.09, respectively). It is concluded that time of testing is an important factor for the behavioral response toward novel food, leading to increased responses when tested at the usual feeding time compared with testing after 30 min of access to usual food. The minor effects of food type of neighbors indicate that it is possible to perform individual testing in a home environment, where the animals have limited possibility for contact with neighbors.

Background: The 13C-octanoic acid breath test has been used to measure gastric emptying in preterm infants, but the reproducibility of the test has not been evaluated in this population. Methods: Fifty-six paired breath test analyses were performed on 28 healthy preterm infants 1 to 5 days apart using the same food type, volume, and energy content for each paired sample. Breath samples were taken before the feeding, at 5-minute intervals after feeding for 30 minutes, then each 15 minutes for 4 hours. Samples were analyzed using an isotope-ratio mass spectrometer, and 13C recovery was used to calculate values for gastric-emptying coefficient and gastric half-emptying time. Results: There was no significant difference between test results on different days in the paired samples studied. Gastric-emptying coefficients for the first and subsequent samples were 2.6 ± 0.1 (mean ± SEM) and 2.7 ± 0.1, respectively, and half-emptying times were 44.5 ± 3.7 minutes and 41.4 ± 3.2 minutes. Conclusion: The 13C-octanoic acid breath test is a reliable, noninvasive, and reproducible measure of gastric emptying in preterm infants that should have wide application for use in this population.

We investigated the motivational control of caching behaviour in scrub jays using a two-stage procedure to examine the effects of prefeeding and/or precaching (stage 1) on subsequent caching behaviour (stage 2). Experiment 1 demonstrated that both prefeeding and precaching reduced the subsequent caching of both edible (peanuts) and inedible (stones) items. The reduction in caching was greatest when the items available for storing were the same in the two stages. This item specificity was confirmed in experiment 2 using two food types, peanuts and dog food kibbles. The final experiment demonstrated that the effect of prefeeding on subsequent caching can also be food specific, in that birds that received food in a powdered form that they could eat, but not cache in stage 1, showed a reduction in subsequent caching in stage 2 only when the food type was the same in the two stages. These results suggest that caching behaviour is controlled by both the feeding system and an independent caching system, and that this control is mediated by the incentive value of the specific items rather than by a general motivational state. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

Training in portion-size estimation is known to improve the accuracy of dietary self-reporting in adults, but there is no comparable evidence for children. To obtain this information, we studied 110 second- and third-grade American Indian schoolchildren (34 control subjects were not trained), testing the hypotheses that a 45-min portion-size estimation training session would reduce children's food quantity estimation error, and that the improvement would be dependent on food type, measurement type, or both. Training was a hands-on, 4-step estimation and measurement skill-building process. Mixed linear models (using logarithmic-transformed data) were used to evaluate within- and between-group differences from pre- to posttest. Test scores were calculated as percentage estimation errors by difference and absolute value methods. Mean within-group estimation error decreased significantly (P0.05) from pre- to posttest for 7 of 12 foods (trained group) by both calculation methods, plus 3 additional foods by the difference method and one additional food by the absolute value method. Significant (P0.05) between-group differences occurred for 3 foods, reflecting a greater decrease in estimation error for the trained group. Improvement was greatest for solid foods estimated by dimensions (P0.05) or in cups (P0.05), for liquids estimated by volume or by label reading (P0.001), and for one amorphous food estimated in cups (P0.01). Despite these significant improvements in estimation ability, the error for several foods remained100% of the true quantity, indicating that more than one training session would be necessary to further increase dietary reporting accuracy.

International audience; Two series of experiments investigated factors affecting utterance of food calls in the domestic hen, Gallus domesticus. The first series of experiments tested the effect of food preference and the hen’s internal state on the utterance of food calls. Different food types were presented first singly and then in a choice test to 20 hens, first when hens were laying, and then when they were maternal. The second series of experiments tested the effect of hunger level on the utterance of food calls in laying hens, and maternal hens with or without chicks. These two series of experiments showed that laying hens and maternal hens showed a similar marked preference for certain types of food, but laying hens very rarely emitted food calls, in contrast to maternal hens. This shows the effect of the bird’s psychophysiological state on her tendency to emit food calls. The more a maternal hen preferred a food type, the more food calls she emitted. This was observed from the beginning of a test in single-food tests as well as in choice tests. Hunger level positively affected food-call production under certain feeding conditions in maternal hens, but not in laying hens. When maternal hens were tested in the absence of their chicks, utterance of food calls was more sustained than in the presence of chicks.

We investigate simple mechanisms for social learning in an evolutionary simulation of food-preference copying in Norway rats. These animals learn preferences by interacting with conspecifics, but, unexpectedly, they fail to learn aversions after interacting with a poisoned demonstrator. They also follow each other to food sites. Simulation results show that failure to discriminate between sick and healthy demonstrators may be due to details of food toxicity in foraging environments. A seemingly complex instance of social information transmission is explained through the action of simple behaviours in an appropriately structured environment.

The food habits of animals may be studied in the laboratory or in the field. Field studies describe diet selection of populations but do not permit analysis of the factors causing individual variation in the foraging behaviour of animals. Although numerous indices have been developed to compare use and availability of foods in field diets of animals, little attention has been given to laboratory approaches for comparing food choices. Tests of food choice must account for the order, consumption rate, and total amount of each food type eaten. Current measures fail to account for one or more of these parameters. This often results in highly ambiguous preference rankings, making comparisons among individuals or species difficult. To solve this problem, I propose using the area under the curve of the cumulative proportion eaten versus time for each food type. This index may be used to assess individual variation and determine the relative importance of each major component of the diet selection process in animals.

Today, soybean crops of the Tamba Kurodaisu cultivar are sown in beds prior to transplantation to the field. This planting system has caused crop failure due to damage to the root system. An experiment to test different sowing alternatives to obtain plantlets for cropping of food type big seeded soybean was set up with the following treatments: sowing in beds; sowing in 130 cm³ newspaper cups; sowing in test tubes of volumes of 30 cm³, 60 cm³ and 70 cm³; sowing in 70 cm³ disposable plastic cups; sowing on 90 cm³ styrofoam trays. A randomized complete block design was used, and the following traits were assessed: germination percentage; number of days to flowering; plant height at flowering; number of days to maturity; plant height at maturity; number of seeds per plant; individual plant yield; weight of a hundred seeds. Results should that three methods could be used to set up Tamba Kurodaisu cultivar crops: sowing in disposable plastic cups, sowing in beds with later transplant, or direct sowing in the field.Atualmente, as lavouras com o cultivar Tamba Kurodaisu são semeadas em canteiros, para posterior transplante no campo. Este sistema tem causado falhas na lavoura, por ocorrer danificação no sistema radicular. Com o objetivo de testar diferentes alternativas de semeadura para obtenção de mudas visando a implantação de lavouras de soja tipo alimento, com sementes graúdas, instalou-se um experimento com os seguintes tratamentos: Semeadura em canteiros; Semeadura em copos de jornal, com volume (V) igual a 130 cm³; Semeadura em tubetes, com V = 30 cm³; V = 60 cm³; V = 70 cm³; Semeadura em copos plásticos descartáveis, com V = 70 cm³; Semeadura em bandejas de isopor, com V = 90cm³. O delineamento utilizado foi blocos casualizados, tendo sido avaliados os seguintes caracteres: Porcentagem de germinação; Número de plantas por parcela; Número de dias para o florescimento; Altura da planta no florescimento; Número de dias para a maturidade; Altura da planta na maturidade; Número de sementes por planta; Produtividade por planta individual; Peso de cem sementes. Para implantar as lavouras de soja com o cultivar Tamba Kurodaisu, pode se utilizar três maneiras: semeadura em copos plásticos descartáveis ou semeadura em canteiros com posterior transplantio e semeadura direta no campo.

A collaborative study was performed in 27 laboratories to validate the enzyme-linked immunosorbent procedure LOCATE for rapid detection of Salmonella in foods. Results were read visually and with a microtiter plate reader. The LOCATE method was compared with the Bacteriological Analytical Manual (BAM)/AOAC INTERNATIONAL culture method for detecting Salmonella in 6 foods: milk chocolate, nonfat dry milk, dried whole egg, soy flour, ground black pepper, and ground raw turkey. Two foods—dried whole egg and black pepper—required repeat rounds because insufficient data sets were produced initially (AOAC INTERNATIONAL stipulates a minimum of 15 sets per food type). Each laboratory tested one or more of the 6 foods. A total of 1 439 samples were analyzed, and no significant differences (P

This review gives a brief outline of the principles of the EPR detection method for irradiated foods by food type. For each food type, the scope, limitations and status of the method are given. The extensive reference list aims to include all which define the method, as well as some rarely cited works of historical importance.

Survey data on the frequency of foodborne occurrence and dietary exposure to Listeria monocytogenes were used to estimate the mininmal mean per person annual rate of exposure in the United States during the late 1980s. The estimate was restricted to ready-to-eat (RTE) foods because proper cooking was assumed to be listericidal. The mean amount of each food type per L. monocytogenes occurrence was calculated in about 100 sources, and dietary intake data were used to calculate the mean number of occurrences of L. monocytogenes consumption per person per year. The mean number of occurrences consumed annually per person was determined to be 10 to 100 for RTE food values of 2 to 20% of the total dietary intake, respectively. The frequency of foodborne listeriosis (approximately 10(-5)) was consistent with the estimated exposure rate only if the susceptible population was unexpectedly small or extremely high doses were necessary for infection. Because little evidence is available to support a high rate of unreported non-severe infections, this study was concerned only with severe listeriosis cases. Published frequencies of L. monocytogenes concentrations in food were used to convert occurrences to colony forming units (CFU). Low L. monocytogenes concentrations (approximately 1 CFU/g) were too frequent to be responsible for listeriosis in susceptible subjects, would have caused listeriosis only with extremely low probability in a one-cell threshold infection model. The probability of exposure to a higher dose (> or = 10(3) CFU) was large enough to account for the observed rate of listeriosis.

An animals’ foraging efficiency may be enhanced by generating rules or strategies of behavior that increase the probability of encountering suitable prey or food patches (Kamil, 1984; Parker, 1986). The information upon which these strategies are based is acquired during a process of exploration and sampling, and is associated with both random encounters and expectations regarding the productivity and distribution of previously visited feeding sites. As resources become depleted and change in spatial and temporal availability, animals must incorporate new or updated information in order to generate more effective foraging patterns. The ability of a forager to exploit resources efficiently is dependent, therefore, on its ability to remember and integrate information concerning: (1) direction, position, and distance between multiple feeding sites; (2) food availability in a patch prior to and after a foraging bout (rates of renewal); (3) number of visits to a patch and time interval since last visit; and, (4) food type associated with a specific feeding site (Dolins 1993; see also Krebs et al, 1977, 1978; Krebs, 1981; Shettleworth & Krebs, 1982; Vander Wall, 1982, 1990; Balda & Turek, 1984; Sherry, 1984; Stephens & Krebs, 1986; Armstrong et al, 1987; Garber, 1988, 1989; Milton, 1988; Brown & Gass, 1993).

Most countries have a general regulation in some form, often an Act, which controls the overall quality of food. Under the UK Food Safety Act (1990), food must be of the nature, substance or quality demanded by the purchaser, must not be harmful to health and must comply with food safety requirements. It is an offence to sell food that does not comply with these requirements. General legislation, similar in nature to the Food Safety Act, also exists in other countries. The Food Safety Act provides, in addition, that further regulations can be made in certain areas where necessary. These regulations may cover standards of composition, permitted ingredients and additives, labelling, hygiene and quantity control. A standard of composition on a particular food type may include a number of these aspects.

Thrips that live on plants can feed on a wide range of types of food. These foods are surveyed. Very little is known about the relative amounts of each food type that a thrips consumes in the field. Thrips may feed more opportunistically and have wider diets, in terms of food type, than has been recognised. It is proposed that many leaf-feeding thrips may also feed on pollen and be occasional predators. The high proportion of leaf-feeding species with wind-pollinated host-plants may reflect the nutritional advantage of being able to feed additionally on pollen that lands on the leaves.

The formation of acrylamide during food frying is generally influenced by food type, thermal treatment and equipment. The acrylamide concentration is increased when frying oils containing a higher level of polar materials or silicone or larger amounts of diglycerides. This effect may be caused by moisture escaping from food that has an enhancing effect on the heat transfer. It was noticed that if the moisture in the frying operation was bound by special adsorbents, the acrylamide content could be reduced by more than 50%. The effects of several additives like citric acid on the formation of acrylamide during frying of chips were also investigated. The mechanism of acrylamide formation in fried foods is discussed to explain these findings.

In beekeeping, queen honey bees are often temporarily kept alive in cages. We determined the survival of newly-emerged virgin honey bee queens every day for seven days in an experiment that simultaneously investigated three factors: queen cage type (wooden three-hole or plastic), attendant workers (present or absent) and food type (sugar candy, honey, or both). Ten queens were tested in each of the 12 combinations. Queens were reared using standard beekeeping methods (Doolittle/grafting) and emerged from their cells into vials held in an incubator at 34C. All 12 combinations gave high survival (90 or 100%) for three days but only one method (wooden cage, with attendants, honey) gave 100% survival to day seven. Factors affecting queen survival were analysed. Across all combinations, attendant bees significantly increased survival (18% vs. 53%, p

He would definitely have to acquire better eating habits. Learning to cook vegetables would be a good place to start. It was more of developing the habit than anything else, if he could just get into the habit of it, of buying carrots and turnips and cabbage etcetera. (James Kelman, A Disaffection, 1989, pp. 267–8.)

Researchers conducted a nested case-control study to investigate whether breast feeding protected infants against pneumonia.1 All children born in urban areas of Southern Brazil in 1993 were included in the cohort. Cases were a total of 152 infants who had been born in 1993, admitted to hospital when aged 28­364 days and diagnosed with pneumonia. Controls were a total of 2391 infants selected from the cohort. Cases and control were not matched. The mothers of all cases and controls were interviewed about the infant’s past diet, with information collected on type of milk consumed, use of fluid supplements, plus use of solid and semisolid supplements. Each food type was investigated as a possible risk factor for the development of pneumonia. The results are presented in the table⇓, which shows the odds ratios of pneumonia according to type of food given. View this table: Odds ratios for developing pneumonia according to type of food given Which of the following, if any, are true?

We tested whether four preservation methods for faecal samples affected the identification of dietary components from the mycophagous woylie (Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi). All storage techniques identified fungi as the most abundant food type (>69%), followed by plant material (9–17%) and invertebrates (

We report the results of 2 studies on food-elicited vocalizations in golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia). First, we investigated the preferences of 10 golden lion tamarins for 6 foods. Tamarins prefer mealworms and raisins significantly more than apple, egg, carrot, or marmoset diet. Food preference rank was significantly and positively correlated with the rank of latency to choose a particular food. Second, we investigated the relation between food preference and 15 vocal parameters measured from the calls emitted by 5 tamarins to a subset of the foods. Only 1 parameter was significantly correlated with food preference across animals. Within-subjects multivariate analysis of variance showed that the vocalizations to foods are significantly different. Our results support an hypothesis that food-elicited vocalizations vary in ways that correspond to the caller's preference but not in a manner that labels food type.

In the field, Spinachia fed on four types of prey; copepods, isopods, mysids and amphipods. As fish size increased, mysids gradually succeeded amphipods as the most important food type in the diet. Prey dimensions and morphometry of the fish's mouth most accurately predicted capture efficiency for amphipods, whereas for mysids capture efficiency was determined by the prey's escape response and the fish's fast-start capability. Responses to model prey revealed the ability of fish to differentiate among contrasting prey characteristics, resulting in the adoption of appropriate predatory tactics. Amphipods were associated with a shorter gut evacuation time than mysids, although approximately equal proportions of energy were absorbed from each. Similar rations of mysids and amphipods were required to satiate fish. The lower energy content per unit dry mass of amphipods was off set by their lower water content. From pre-digestive behaviour, we predicted that mysids were more profitable than amphipods, and this was reflected in the fish's choice. Conversely, incorporating the net rate of energy uptake by the gut led us to predict that amphipods were more profitable. Although physiological constraints clearly influence the net rate of energy uptake, it appears that dietary preferences are based on pre-digestive predatory behaviour and hence on time minimisation.

Although eating out is increasing globally, nutritional quality of restaurant food is seldom studied. The purpose of our study was to assess the nutritional quality of restaurant a la carte meals. Methods: The energy, CHO, fat, protein and sodium content of entrees (n=354) served in 12 commercial restaurants were calculated and compared with the reference values. The entrees were grouped into 15 types according to main ingredient and food type. The reference values per meal were calculated as 1/3 of the daily intake based on the dietary recommendations. Results: Majority of the entrees met the reference values of energy in both genders. However, the CHO content of all entreees were below the reference value in men and met the reference value of pizzas and pork dishes in women. Reference value of protein was exceeded by 59 and 33% of the entrees in women and in men. Similarly, fat content of 52 and 31% of the entrees exceeded the reference value for women and men, respectively. 12/15 entree types in women and 9/15 in men exceeded the reference value of fat. However, the variability in fat content of those entree types meeting the recommendation was large. Similarly, majority of entrees (76%) exceeded the sodium recommendation, and the variation was large in those entree types meeting the reference value. Conclusions: Restaurant a la carte entrees need modifications to meet the nutrition guidelines especially regarding the high fat and low CHO content. This can be achieved f.ex. substituting part of the meal with carbohydrate rich foods, such as pasta and bread.

Guillemots (Cepphus spp.) feed their chicks a diet that is almost exclusively fish. We observed Pigeon Guillemots (C. columba) at two colonies in Alaska where hermit crabs (Crustacea: Anomura) were a major part of the diet for some nestlings. Hermit crabs were delivered to three of five observed nests at one colony, comprised between 2% and 22% of the items delivered at those nests, and were the second most common food type at one nest. Hermit crabs may be an attractive prey item when lipid-rich forage fish are scarce, and crabs living in gastropod shells that have been softened by encrustations of Suberites sponges may be vulnerable to guillemot predation. Received 11 March 1998, accepted 1 April 1998.

LEARNING OUTCOME: To identify the differences in estimation accuracy for solid, liquid, and amorphous foods following a 15-minute training on food portion sizes The study investigated the influences of the three food types (solid, liquid, and amorphous) and training on the accuracy of food portion size estimations. A separate-sample pretest-posttest research design was used. The sample of 63 college students between the ages of 17 and 21 years was randomly divided into an untrained and a trained group. The untrained group completed an evaluation where they identified the amounts of nine foods, while the trained group received a 15-minute training on estimating food portion sizes prior to an identical evaluation. The results of the analyses of variance indicate that training had a significant effect on the accuracy of estimation (p=.006) . Following the 15-minute training, accuracy of estimation for solid and liquid foods significanly improved (p=.001 and .025 respectively) while training appeared to have no significant impact on the portion size estimations for amorphous foods (p=.420) . Errors in food portion size estimation vary as a result of food type and training. Increased knowledge on how the factors affect estimation is vital in order for dietitians to improve current training methods for patients on portion-controlled diets.

to show how an animal's diet may be the predictable product of simple foraging strategies in response to the distribution and abundance of its foods. We consider four reasons why a forager may exhibit a partially selective diet. First, different foods may co-occur within the same patch and the forager may have different encounter probabilities on different food types. Second, different foods may co-occur within the same patch and the forager may reject an encountered food item based upon its type. Third, different foods may be distributed within distinct patches and the forager's use of a patch may be influenced by joint considerations of food type and abundance. Fourth, different foods may occur in distinct habitats and the forager may allot time among habitats for reasons other than food type. To test these predictions, we measured the giving-up densities of free-living fox squirrels in experimental food patches containing peanut and/or sunflower seeds. When foods co-occur, the squirrels are partially selective on sunflower at high quitting harvest rates, and, at low quitting harvest rates, they are partially selective on peanuts. This switch in selectivity suggests that sunflower are preferred to peanut, and that squirrels have a higher encounter probability on peanut than sunflower. When foods occur in different patches, squirrels are partially selective on whichever food has the relatively higher initial abundance. In response to predation risk, squirrels forage food