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Poland's post‐communist economic performance has been generally good. However, for many years, its growth was jobless; it exhibited very high unemployment rates and made little progress towards the targets set for EU Member States and accession countries. Unexpectedly, in 2003, the country's labour market began to exhibit a new dynamism, with employment growing strongly and unemployment tumbling. This apparent improvement coincided with a liberalisation of its Labour Code. Unfortunately, the measures introduced to increase flexibility are at variance with the EU's Fixed‐term Work Directive and will likely need to be modified, which may conceivably reverse the recent developments that form the focus of this article.

The Romanian Labour Code – Act no 53/2003 – has been modified several times during its application. The most important modifications were aiming at the following aspects: the termination of the labour contract (especially the individual and collective dismissal and the rightful termination of the contract), the individual labour contract for a limited duration, the work time and the rest time. These modifications were punctual and determined by the necessity of assuring a balance between the position of the employees and the one of the employers.A lot of critics have been formulated by the representatives of the employers after the Labour Code got in force. They consider that the actual regulation is too restrictive for them. It is still extremely favourable for the employees, who are protected by the Code even in situations which are not necessary to assure this protection (professional evaluation, individual dismissal, disciplinary procedure and liability). These were the reasons which determined a constant pressure from the employer’s trade unions in relation with the Government in order to modify those parts of the Code which are too favourable to the employees.The draft of the modification act includes the following major aspects: the written form of the individual labour contract; the non-competition clause; the unilateral modification of the individual labour contract by the employer; the individual dismissal; the work time; the collective bargaining and the collective contracts; the material liability of the employee; the labour jurisdiction.

The minimum wage has been a controversial issue since 1912, when Massachusetts (USA) passed the first state minimum wage act. The Czech Republic has had a statutory national minimum wage since 1990 (Act no. 65/1965 Coll., or the Labour Code; the specific minimum wage levels and the conditions for applying it were then set by a Government Resolution in 1991). The paper deals with some results of empirical research into the effects of the minimum wage on enterprises and employment and compares the statutory minimum wage in the Czech Republic and selected countries.

The article includes deliberations on the issue of proper application of provisions of the Polish Civil Code to matters relating to relationship of employment, which are not regulated by labour law provisions. Among numerous issues and doubts arising in relation to functions of Article 300 of the Polish Labour Code in the legal system, the author has distinguished significance of a reservation of proper application of the provisions for the purposes of the labour law and, in particular, in the context of admissible modification of provisions of the Polish Civil Code. The analysis of opinions of the doctrine and review of the case law of the Supreme Court have made it possible to formulate a critical opinion on the possibility to amend provisions of the Polish Civil Code in the progress of application of the same in connection with article 300 of the Polish Labour Code. The conclusions have been extended by indicated threats arising from modification of provisions applied after fulBlment of prerequisites of article 300 of the Polish Labour Code as well as several trends of modifications, which would aim at limitation or elimination of any doubts and divergences as regards interpretation.

The Trade Boards Act of 1909 was introduced in Britain to counteract sweating. Associated with long hours, insanitary work conditions and inadequate pay — with the accent falling on low wages — sweating probably afflicted some 30 per cent of Edwardian Britain's labour force. Trade boards supporters as diverse as Winston Churchill and R. H. Tawney heralded the legislation as marking a significant break in economic and social thought. Opponents declared that the enactment of the legislation would be ruinous for Britain. The future Labour Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, and his wife denounced trade boards as pallid reformism and campaigned for the licensing of home workshops. On the other hand, proponents of a subsistence minimum wage, such as Sidney and Beatrice Webb, were disappointed that the legislation did not go further. Initially, it encompassed less than a quarter of a million workers. The rates set were not based on the cost of living but on what the individual trade could bear. On their own, trade boards were insufficient to eradicate Britain's long and historical tradition of being a low‐paying economy. Trade boards (and their successors, wages councils) were trapped in their collective laissez‐faire origins. However, despite its sanctioning of a statutory national minimum wage in 1998, the British state is still far from being interventionist in the labour market. If Britain is to break with the past, she must also implement a comprehensive framework of minimum rights. Otherwise, the principle of collective laissez‐faire will still remain triumphant over the Webbs' alternative conception of a comprehensive labour code.

This article examines the labour diversification strategies of 41 urban poor households in Kabul, Afghanistan across a 12-month period to determine if diversification is sufficient to reduce risk and bring improvement to their lives and livelihoods, or if diversification is solely a survival strategy. It finds that diversification in terms of numbers of workers, multiple employment statuses represented and who works—particularly mobilizing adult male workers—s important to bring some measure of income security, but that movement beyond income adequacy (assessed through low need to borrow for consumption) is elusive. Having male workers and access to regular salaried work are key strategies, though no guarantee in the face of shocks and crises, and all households cannot ensure access to such household compositions or labour pools; in the end many are dependent on child and/or female labour. Recommendations on how to improve employment opportunities and outcomes for the urban poor are provided, linked to on going processes in the Afghan context including the approval of a new labour code, development of a national employment policy, and the drafting of the Afghanistan National Development Strategy, Afghanistan's PRSP.

Slovakia distinguished itself in the first half of this decade by launching a coherent set of economic reforms that limited government and transferred social and economic risk to individuals. We examine reforms in fiscal policy, pensions, the labour code, health care, investment, education and justice. While the surprise formation of a centre – right governing coalition in 2002 enabled Slovakia's ‘neoliberal’ turn, a close network of neoliberal policy makers and advisors from civil society organisations used the opportunity to push forward a compelling explanation of Slovak economic problems and promote a clear institutional design for fixing them.

The article examines the extent to which latecomers to the International La bour Organization (ILO) that comprise more than one half of the organization could be said to have contributed to the establishment of the International Labour Code, about two-thirds of which had already been established by the time that they began to join the ILO as politically sovereign independent states. The article focuses on the recent work of the ILO Working Party on Policy Regarding the Revision of Standards (1994-2002). It evaluates both the significance of outcomes of the Working Party's achievements and the role of the latecomers in that enterprise. It shows that the latecomers have appropriated the ILO dynamic and utilized the ILO's working party and com mittee structures both to project matters of foremost concern to themselves onto the agenda of the ILO and to update the International Labour Code by evaluating, categorizing, and suspending some of the conventions and recommendations that they had deemed to be irrelevant. It concludes that after the conclusion of the work of the Working Party on Policy Regarding the Revision of Standards, latecomers to the ILO have become equal co * Ben Chigara is a Research Professor of Law and Director of the Center for International and Public Law at Brunei University, West London, UK. He is also Deputy Head of the Brunei Law School (Operations). He is a graduate of the Universities of Nottingham, Ph.D. (1998); Hull, LL.M. (1994); Keele, B.A. (1993). He researches and teaches in the areas of International Economic and Labor Law, and the Development and Enforcement of International Human Rights Law, and Legal Theory. The author owes a debt of gratitude to Professor Evance Kalula, Faculty of Law, Uni versity of Cape Town, South Africa for his invaluable comments on an earlier draft; Staff of the Geneva ILO Office for their support and advice; Staff of the ILO London Office for all their help; and to Constance Chigara; Benedict Chigara jr. and Barnabas Chigara (BC) for their encouragement. Human Rights Quarterly 29 (2007) 706-726 ? 2007 by The Johns Hopkins University Press This content downloaded from 207.46.13.184 on Sun, 10 Apr 2016 05:11:50 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 2007 Latecomers to the ILO 707 authors and co-owners of the International Labour Code together with all the other member states parties of the ILO.

This paper examines the use of two forms of non-standard work contracts in Russia with data from an enterprise survey for the years 2009 to 2011. Non-standard work contracts are less costly and more flexible for employers. Internal adjustment in form of wage cuts or unpaid leave is not covered by the Labour Code and earlier practices to impose such measures are less tolerated. Therefore more firms use non-standard work contracts for external flexibility. Statistical analysis shows that companies using non-standard work contracts have similar unobserved characteristics and consider fixed-term contracts and agency work as complements. The main concern for policy is the growing danger of duality following the asymmetric distribution of adjustment costs for workers.

In the article the general principles of the Federal Labour Inspectorate activity (such as legality, objectivity, independence, publicity) are reviewed. To our mind, the Russian Federation Labour Code should include principled positions which would reflect the essence of Federal Labour Inspectorate activity (principle of centralization, territorial and sectorial exercise of authority, due diligence priority, cooperation with state and local government authorities, civic institutions as well as with employees, employers and their representatives). DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n2s4p9

Individual dismissal is individual employment termination as a result of the effective abolition of the position held by the employee, for one or more reasons not related to his person, based on actual cause real and serious under art. 65 Romanian Labour Code. It should be noted that the practice shows that, at present, the reasons are, in fact, the same: economic, technological, organizational. As for checking the validity of the plea raised by the employer, it falls within the jurisdiction of the courts seised of the appeal dismissed employee. By law no. 85/2014 on procedures to prevent insolvency and insolvency to set a new insolvency regime by repealing the previous law no. 85/2006 regarding the same. We consider that art. 123 of Law no. 85/2014 does not cover a new hypothesis for the termination of individual employment contract, but a reflection of the provisions of the Romanian Labour Code. In reality, it does not simply embodies, in principle, the possibility of individual labor contract parties to unilaterally terminate the contract, the obligation to respect the right that the period of notice. Art. 123 para. 1 is not the individual employment contracts, and art. 123 para. 7 generic enshrines the right of both parties to terminate the contract of employment. Alin. 8 of the same article regulates the right of the employer to the employee's dismissal of individual or collective. In conclusion, art. 123 is an application of art. 65 et seq. of the Romanian Labour Code, the applicable individual or collective dismissal procedure covered by these texts.

Because of its economic and social implications, and in spite of regulation at the highest level, the termination of employment by the employer is one of the most sensitive issues in labour law today1. This article deal with the legal provisions concerning the termination of contract of employment by the employer, covering topics such as, the procedure of employment contract termination, notice to terminate the contract of employment, damages or compensation for unfair or unjustified dismissal. It offers a comparative overview of the procedures governing termination of employment in Albania and some industrialized countries of EU Member States. In Albania, this article deals only with employees whose work is regulated by the labour code, categories of employed persons whose terms and conditions of employment are governed by specific law, are beyond the scope of this Article. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n2p95

A formação contínua constitui, desde a entrada em vigor do Código do Trabalho e ao nível das relações individuais de trabalho dever quantificado e mensurável. Os contraentes laborais vinculam-se, em larga escala por mera determinação legal, ao cumprimento de deveres que, na génese, têm cariz de reciprocidade, podendo ser objeto de transmissão interpartes, adquirindo simultaneamente mas também sucessivamente, direitos objeto de caducidade na vigência do contrato. A figura da formação em contexto de trabalho subordinado carece de investigação científica ao nível do Direito já que, na prática, apresenta-se ainda de forma embrionária relativamente aos restantes direitos/deveres laborais. No presente estudo caracteriza-se a obrigação formativa ao nível do contrato de trabalho e do Código do Trabalho, expõe-se sobre a sua evolução através de análise comparativa entre as normas do Código de 2003 e as do Código de 2009, analisa-se o regime jurídico atual, as figuras com as quais a formação se relaciona, como sejam o pacto de permanência, o despedimento por inadaptação e a licença sem retribuição, abordando-se ainda criticamente as estatísticas existentes sobre a execução da formação contínua por forma a aferir-se sobre o impacto que o normativo legal de cariz sancionatório tem sobre os destinatários das normas contidas no Código do Trabalho. Integrará o Direito as necessidades do sistema, apresentando-se como seu adequado regulador? Continuous training is, since the entry into force of the Labour Code, a quantified and measurable obligation due by both contractors. Labour contractors bond themselves, on a large scale because of a simple legal determination, to the fulfilment of duties which, in its origin, have reciprocity characteristics and can be transmitted between parties, acquiring simultaneous but also successively, rights object of prescription during the contract effectiveness. The institute of continuous training in a subordinate work context requires scientific research on a law level since in practice, it is still embrionary regarding the remaining work rights and duties. The present study characterizes training obligations at an individual contract level and regarding the Labour Code rules; describes its evolution through a comparative analysis of the 2003 Code and the 2009 Code; analyses the present legal regime and the institutes with which continuous training is related like continuance agreements, dismissal for lack of adaptation capacity, and license without retribution. It is also made a critical approach to the existing statistics about continual training performance in order to evaluate the impact of the law on their recipients. Does Law respond to the system needs and presents itself as its adequate regulator?

Equal employment policy has been the EU mainstream policy area when it comes to gender equality policy mainly because of its starkly economic nature and focus. However, as the EU has enlarged not only geographically but also in its scope of influence, it has extended its reach into areas that deal more with domestic social aspects such as reconciliation policies. Thus, it is important to analyse the changes that have taken place with regards to balancing family and work life in the new EU member states to 1) evaluate the influence that the EU has beyond equality in employment and 2) to understand the commitment that domestic governments have demonstrated to transform and shift the traditional view on the division of public and private life through policy measures that in general improve women’s status in the society.

The goal of this thesis was to discover the size of using contracts for work and contracts for services outside main job contract. Contracts for work, which is considered as a second, but only half-time, job when employee can work up half of the work hours i.e. up to 20 hours per week. Contracts for services is mostly closed for a short term work. in this thesis I chose a 15 companies in Benešov to find out which contracts these companies uses more. If it's contract for work or contracts for servises.

Employment contracts for replacement purposes are not legally clearly defined under the current Polish Labour Code. It is a contractual arrangement that allows employers to solve personnel issues associated with temporarily unavailable workers for given periods of time. The core elements associated with an employment contract for a replacement, as compared to those of a fixed term employment contract, warrant the assertion that this is an agreement incompatible with the principle of equality in employment and social justice. There are controversies also associated as to how such replacement agreements can be terminated. The legislator intends to change the governing rules of terminating fixed term contracts as well as replacement agreements. Those employees who are in fact replacing workers who are absent for justifiable reasons, remain the weakest employee group as far as employment law protection is concerned.

Zakres nietypowego zatrudnienia w węgierskim prawie pracy zmienił się znacząco od wejścia w życie 1 lipca 2012 r. nowego Kodeksu pracy. Podstawowym celem zmian było stworzenie elastycznego systemu prawa pracy, odpowiadającego wyzwaniom rynkowym, a także potrzebom sektora usług oraz sektora małych i średnich przedsiębiorstw. Na Węgrzech zasięg nietypowych form zatrudnienia (np. zatrudnienia w niepełnym wymiarze, zatrudnienia terminowego, telepracy i in.) jest dość niski. Dlatego Kodeks pracy wprowadził więcej elastycznych regulacji odnoszących się do nietypowych form zatrudnienia, umożliwiających stronom lepsze zaspokojenie ich potrzeb. Nowy Kodeks przewiduje wiele nietypowych form stosunków pracy. Należą do nich: (1) praca nakładcza, (2) telepraca, (3) praca doraźna, (4) zatrudnienie przez publicznego pracodawcę, (5) zatrudnienie osób ubezwłasnowolnionych, (6) umowy terminowe, (8) praca na wezwanie, (9) dzielenie się pracą, (10) dzielenie pracownika, (11) praca tymczasowa, (12) stosunki pracy między spółdzielniami szkolnymi i ich członkami. Autor zwięźle charakteryzuje każdą z tych form zatrudnienia. Udostępnienie publikacji Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego finansowane w ramach projektu „Doskonałość naukowa kluczem do doskonałości kształcenia”. Projekt realizowany jest ze środków Europejskiego Funduszu Społecznego w ramach Programu Operacyjnego Wiedza Edukacja Rozwój; nr umowy: POWER.03.05.00-00-Z092/17-00.

Employee's liability for damage caused to the employer Abstract My rigorosum thesis deals with the issue of "Employee's liability for damage caused to the employer". My main motivation to choose this topic is to the fact because it is connected with every individual of working age, exactlier said - with every employee. Legal regulation of employee's liability for damage caused to the employer undoubtedly belongs to the most important areas of labour law. The above mentioned issue is highly topical. The high topicality is presented by a high number of judicial decisions of courts of all instances. It is clear that not only in the judicial decisions of general courts but also in the judicial decisions of the Supreme Court of the Czech Republic dealing with the employee's liability for damage caused to the employer is increasing. In my rigorosum thesis I focus first and foremost on the analysis of legal regulation of employee's liability for damage caused to the employer as well as on the closest legal matter connected with the main issue of this rigorosum thesis. I also deal with the matter of application of the legal regulation in legal practice mostly based on judicial decisions of the general courts of all instances as well as judicial decisions of the Supreme Court of the Czech Republic. I analyse the...

in English The objective of the thesis rests in analysing the problems of the termination of the employment contract as per the Czech law. The ambition of this thesis is also to research and assess whether the Czech law fulfils an adequate protection of employees' interests in the present working environment in diffident conditions and under all and any circumstances and whether such protection is in balance with legitimate employers' interest to keep the working process development or enable its termination. The thesis is divided into five parts. The first part deals with legislation development and present legislation, principle and forms of the termination of the employment contract. The second part describes the termination of the employment contract by the Labour Code, i.e. a bilateral or unilateral will of one of the entities of the employment contract, which results in the termination of such employment relation. The events which result in the termination of the employment contract are outlined in the third part. The fourth part then supplements the thesis by all any other aspects relating to the termination of the employment contract. In the last part, the author deals with the situations when the employment contract is terminated invalidly. In conclusion, the author expresses her opinion...

Jurismat : Revista Jurídica

Employment relations, as well as issues of social and labour-market reforms or the social dialogue, have been extensively treated by various researches interested in the East and Central European region. In this context, much attention has been paid to the changing roles of trade unions, the problem of re-making ancient structures perverted by their more or less collaboration with the Communist parties from the region and the emergence of new structures in search for legitimisation, the difficulties of trade unionism in articulating and representing interests, an aspect that is directly related to their organisational problems, the relations with the governmental authorities and with the employers' organisations in the tripartite framework, as well as the nature of the tripartism in reuniting social partners and state. This article focuses on national organised labour in Romania in relation to the 2005 Labour Code amendment. This specific level of national interest representation is privileged in...

The persistence of rural poverty in Guatemala since the early 1990s challenges the purported association between agricultural export growth and poverty alleviation. Lack of access to education, health and credit, and the historical legacies of land inequality, labour exploitation and ethnic discrimination, are preventing growth from reaching the rural poor. Most analyses, including the World Bank's recent ‘Poverty in Guatemala’ report, fail to consider how the economic and political power of the country's economic elite perpetuate and exacerbate poverty. A focus on two of Guatemala's most dynamic agro‐export sectors — sugar and snow peas (mange‐tout), both reputed to have had a significant impact on poverty alleviation — reveals the limits on pro‐poor growth. Policy recommendations to promote pro‐poor growth that are derived from the analysis include full implementation of the labour code, a national land‐titling programme, and cultural programmes to change elite attitudes towards poverty and development.

La vigilancia y seguridad privada en Colombia nace en la década de los años 50, cuando a raíz de la violencia se hace necesario la creación de organismos externos para brindar apoyo a la seguridad pública. Dichos organismos estuvieron a cargo de la Policía Nacional, pero luego evolucionaron como entes autónomos, para convertirse en lo que hoy día se conoce como la Superintendencia de Vigilancia y Seguridad Privada. La normatividad vigente que rige a este gremio es el Código Sustantivo del Trabajo, pero se hace necesario de una normatividad y/o legislación especial que garantice a los empleados la protección de sus derechos. Considerando que las empresas de vigilancia privada han tomado como costumbre imponer turnos de doce (12) horas a sus trabajadores, cuando no está permitido por la ley; Igualmente muchas empresas acostumbran hacer trabajar a sus empleados de vigilancia los domingos y festivos sin que se les reconozcan los recargos respectivos. The private security in Colombia was born in the decade of the 50s, when violence following the creation of external agencies to support public safety is necessary. These bodies were in charge of the National Police, but then evolved as autonomous entities, to become what today is known as the Superintendency of Private Security and Surveillance. The current regulations governing this guild is the Labour Code, but it is necessary in a regulation and / or special legislation that guarantees employees the protection of their rights. Whereas the private security companies have taken as usual imposing shifts of twelve (12) hours for their workers, when not permitted by law; Also many companies often make their employees work on Sundays and public surveillance without being recognized respective charges.

PurposeThis paper aims to examine how the Slovak Labour Code has evolved as a result of the “velvet revolution” which saw Czechoslovakia begin the transition from a “command” to a “market economy, the establishment of a separate Czech Republic and a Slovak Republic and Slovakia's accession to membership of the European Union.Design/methodology/approachThe paper attempts to provide an empirical contribution to the understanding of how the process of industrial relations is evolving in the new democracies of Eastern and Central Europe in the post‐communist period.FindingsThe paper highlights how the detailed codification of trade union rights of the communist era have been drastically reformed in light of the Slovak Republic adopting a market economy and adopting the EU's social acquis communautaire. The governments desire to liberalise and encourage a more flexible labour market has seen many of the old powers of the trade unions transferred to other forms of employee representation such as works councils and works trustees.Research limitations/implicationsThe author has described the strategy of the government to marginalise trade unions by introducing works councils and transferring functions to them, which had previously been performed by the trade unions.Originality/valueThe paper provide an interesting insight into how “players” in the “employee relations game” perceive the re‐codification of the Slovak Labour Code. There seems to be a mixed response to the changes, for whilst the union claims that it is able to boast a 95 per cent success rate in winning cases in the courts arising out of the rights and protections provided for employees in the Labour Code, and not withstanding the very low incidence of industrial action, the paper notes with some irony that there is significant school of opinion amongst Slovak trade unionists that the price that they pay for all of this is some of the lowest wages in the region.

PurposeThis paper aims to map the critical changes in the history of trade unionism in the countires which until the late 80s early 90s formed the USSR, and spans a period from 1905 to 2005.Design/methodology/approachThe author has chosen to assess the role of trade unions in the former Soviet states by placing them into their historical context. The diversity of their development in the various states is discussed and the painful transition journey they made in the aftermath of the collapse of the Soviet Union is described as a means of explaining the structure and role they play in the newly created democracies within the region.FindingsThe paper emphasizes the powerful and influential role that trade unions enjoyed under the old regime when they were very much – de facto – an arm of the state machine. Their role as overseers of social and welfare benefits and enforcers of health and safety regulations and guardians of the Labour Code is compared with that in the post‐communist period when the new governments throughout the region quickly transferred those functions back to the state and in most cases consciously set out to marginalize the unions. The paper summarizes the state of play of the trade unions in the region as they seek to adapt to the new conditions and establish a new raison detra.Research limitations/implicationsThe existing literature contains few accounts of trade union activity and how it changed as a result of the collapse of communism in the former Soviet territories. This study of the Cultural Workers Union provides a sound base from which to launch further research into the development of free trade unions in other sectors of the region in the post‐communist period.Originality/valueThis paper's primary value is that it starts to fill a gap in our understanding of employee relations in the new democracies of what was the USSR and in particular the form that trade unions have taken, the role they play and the challenges that they face.

This article provides guidance to employers and managers regarding their obligations under the California State Labour Code. Federal labour laws will be discussed as these two bodies of law are closely related in some areas as the state code has flowed from federal legislation. The state labour code imposes requirements on hiring and firing, employee benefits and wages, collective bargaining and worker health and safety. The article confines itself to the statutory scheme of the state labour code and how it is interpreted by courts and scholars. Case law imposes additional requirements upon the employer‐employee relationship in California but this is outside the scope of this article. The source of most of the information contained herein has come from the code itself as supplemented by cases and scholarly commentary. The article will only deal with California law and therefore may be inapplicable to other states.

The concept of 'core labour rights' has, over the last decade or so, assumed a central role in debates about the role of international labour law in an integrated world economy. Some, including Philip Alston, see this development as a retreat from and a threat to the existing international labour law regime, especially the International Labour Organization's international labour code. On this view the new concentration upon core rights undermines the existing regime from within by narrowing its focus, weakening the legal status of the core rights, relegating the 'non-core' to a second-class status, watering down its 'enforcement' mechanisms, and so on. This view, while popular, is available only on a very narrow and conventional understanding of the purpose of international labour law. A better understanding is available which enables us to see core labour rights as conceptually coherent (and not politically arbitrary), morally salient (and not merely part of an empty neo-liberal conspiracy) and pragmatically vital to the achievement of our true goals, including the 'enforceability' of the 'non-core' (and not an undermining of the whole regime from within). This essay defends this second and positive account of core rights by reacting to Philip Alston's recent essay in this journal, which is taken as the most comprehensive and aggressive articulation of the 'anti-core rights' point of view.

Considerations on the nature, role and influence of authoritative writings or doctrine in Québec labour law. Authoritative writings or « doctrine » may be defined as follows : « the aggregate of writings that constitute a source of law inasmuch as they may affect law through the actions of the courts or the legislator ». The following hypothesis may then be formulated : although everything points towards an increased development of such writings or doctrine in labour law, several factors have retarded this development. The needs for such research is illustrated via various examples. These needs can be felt in legislative circles, for instance, concerning questions raised over the present consultative committee on labour created by the Québec government for revising the Labour Code. The same applies to the courts in, for example, recent decisions on basic principles applying to collective labour relationships. The article also summarily describes various obstacles hindering the development of authoritative writings which may be divided into objective ones (i.e., recent law, uneven development viz-à-viz North American laws, widespread jurisdictions, lack of researchers, constraints on the university milieu) and subjective ones (i.e., lack of openness in the labour relations milieu, an idealized conception of what doctrine is all about and the knack researchers have for taking on activities linked to practice). Lastly, several desirable orientations for research are mapped out: the penetration of law in labour relations (« juridicisation ») and the invasion of adjudication (« judiciarisation »), the empirical effects of labour law and an integrated and comparative history of Québec labour laws.

« The judges lack the intimate knowledge of the very dynamic process of industrial relations and collective bargaining. For these reasons...the new labour code has removed the court's jurisdiction over labour disputes...The new law seeks an administrative rather than a judicial solution to labour disputes. »** * JOSEPH, P.A., Faculty of Law, University of Canterbury, New Zealand. ** BRITISH COLUMBIA LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY DEBATES (1973) (Third Session), at 399-400 per the Hon. W.S. King, Minister of Labour.

This paper focusses on the relationship between technological change and the labour relations system circumscribed by the Québec Labour Code. While a teleological interpretation of bargaining rights of certified associations by labour jurisdictions seems to have dealt adequately with the impact of such changes on certification, the doctrine of residual management rights, in the context of fixed-term agreements entrenched in the Québec Labour Code, appears to be, in the opinion of the author, unduly rigid and restrictive. The Freedman Report on Railway run-through and the subsequent discussions surrounding the Woods Commission Report in the 1960's, resulted in the inclusion in the Canada Labour Code of provisions pertaining to the possible adjustment, through collective bargaining, of collective agreements in the context of such technological changes. Various provisions to the same effect have subsequently been inserted in the Labour Codes of Saskatchewan, Manitoba and British-Columbia. The Report of the Beaudry Commission recently proposed that the Québec Labour Code be similary modified by the inclusion of analoguous provisions. The author suggests that a reform along the lines thus suggested is, in principle, desirable to ensure a more equitable adaptability of our legal categories to the imperatives of technological change.

Avant la passation du Code du Travail du Québec, les principales dispositions affectant le statut des syndicats et des conventions collectives au Québec étaient contenues dans la loi des Relations ouvrières et dans celle des Syndicats professionnels. En vertu de la loi des Syndicats professionnels, un syndicat ouvrier pouvait acquérir une personnalité légale en suivant la procédure appropriée. Une convention collective signée par un tel syndicat constituait un contrat négocié librement entre l'employeur et le syndicat ouvrant des recours devant les tribunaux et liant seulement les employés qui en étaient membres ou qui l'avaient joint plus tard. La loi des Syndicats professionnels ne contenait pas de dispositions touchant le règlement des conflits pendant la durée de la convention collective par une procédure de griefs ou par l'arbitrage à sentence exécutoire.Dans le contexte de la loi des Relations ouvrières, les syndicats (non incorporés en vertu de la loi des Syndicats professionnels) étaient des associations volontaires sans personnalité légale propre. Les conventions collectives signées par de tels syndicats n'étaient pas des contrats librement négociés donnant droit de recours devant les tribunaux, mais s'apparentaient à la nature des « gentlemen's agreements » conclus par les employeurs et les syndicats certifiés comme agents de négociation et liant non seulement les membres du syndicat mais tous les employés de l'unité de négociation. Les employeurs devaient négocier de bonne foi avec des agents de négociation certifiés. La loi des Relations ouvrières ne prévoyait pas le règlement devant les tribunaux des griefs relevant des conventions collectives, mais l'amendement de 1961 à la Loi prévoyait l'arbitrage obligatoire et à sentence exécutoire de ces griefs.Le seul recours judiciaire devant les tribunaux inclus dans la Loi était une poursuite de caractère pénal en vertu de la loi des convictions sommaires du Québec pour infractions aux dispositions de la Loi. Depuis 1946, les dispositions de la loi des Relations ouvrières en regard de la nature et de l'application des conventions collectives s'appliquèrent aux conventions collectives conclues par les syndicats incorporés en vertu de la loi des Syndicats professionnels et certifiés comme agents négociateurs en vertu de la loi des Relations ouvrières. En 1938, une loi pour faciliter l'exercice de certains droits rendit possible le recours devant les tribunaux contre des syndicats non incorporés en leur propre nom. Ces dispositions furent ajoutées à l'amendement de 1960 au Code de procédure civile en permettant aux syndicats non incorporés de poursuivre en leur nom collectif.Alors que ces amendements fournissaient une procédure qui permettait aux syndicats non-incorporés de poursuivre ou d'être poursuivis en leur nom, elle n'affectait pas la position des syndicats non-incorporés en tant qu'associations volontaires sans personnalité légale.En régime de common law, les syndicats ouvriers comme tels avaient été considérés sans existence ni personnalité légale distincte de leurs membres individuels et conséquemment ils étaient exemptés des procédures judiciaires en leur propre nom. Les conventions collectives d'après le common law n'avaient pas été considérées comme contrats ouvrant des recours devant les tribunaux, mais plutôt s'apparentaient à des « gentlemen's agreements ». Cette approche en common law relativement au statut des syndicats et des conventions collectives s'est reflétée dans la législation patronale-ouvrière qui apparût dans les années qui suivirent la deuxième guerre-mondiale dans le domaine de juridiction fédérale aussi bien que dans la législation provinciale en common law. En même temps, en ce qui concerne le statut des syndicats ouvriers, certaines lois ont prévu d'accorder aux syndicats une personnalité légale afin qu'ils puissent être poursuivis en leur propre nom pour les offenses commises contre les Lois. En conséquence les tribunaux prétendaient que ces dispositions ne pouvaient pas être interprétées comme permettant également aux syndicats de poursuivre en leur nom.En conséquence, la loi des Relations ouvrières fut amendée au Manitoba et au Nouveau-Brunswick afin d'habiliter les syndicats à poursuivre comme entités légales. Dans la plupart des juridictions, la législation ouvrière n'indiquait pas si les syndicats étaient capables de poursuivre ou d'être poursuivis en leur nom en tant que personnes légales. La présomption était à l'effet que les syndicats ouvriers étant des associations volontaires, la seule possibilité qui leur restait de poursuivre ou d'être poursuivis en justice était par la voie d'une action représentative. Dans quelques cas, cette vue fut confirmée par les tribunaux. Dans plusieurs autres cependant, les tribunaux considèrent les syndicats comme des entités légales en regard des lois de Relations ouvrières et des procédures judiciaires découlant de ces lois. Finalement, dans la cause,International Brotherhood of Teamsters, local No. 213, vs Henri Thérien (1960) 22 D.L.R. (2d) p. 1, la Cour Suprême du Canada soutint qu'un syndicat ouvrier, en vertu de la loi des Relations ouvrières de la Colombie-Britannique, est une entité légale non seulement en regard de la loi des Relations ouvrières, mais aussi du common law et peut être tenu responsable en son nom pour dommages, soit pour aller à l'encontre d'une disposition de la loi des Relations ouvrières, soit en vertu du common law.Dans quelques décisions qui suivirent ce jugement, les tribunaux prétendirent que le principe établi lors de la causeThérien était applicable aux syndicats ouvriers en vertu de la législation ouvrière au Manitoba, en Ontario et en vertu de la loi fédérale I.R.D.I. Cette évolution du common law en regard du statut des syndicats s'est reflétée dans des dispositions légales dans quelques provinces. L'approche originelle du common law qui apparentait les conventions collectives à des « gentlemen’s agreements » s'est changée à la suite des dispositions légales concernant le caractère exécutoire des conventions collectives, la méthode de faire appliquer de telles conventions par l'arbitrage obligatoire et à sentence exécutoire, et en raison des dispositions qui faisaient d'une infraction à la convention une offense en vertu de la Loi et objet de poursuite. Ceci amena les tribunaux (incluant la Cour Suprême du Canada) dans la cause Polymer Corporation and Oil Chemical Atomic Workers International Union, Local 16-14 (1961), 26 D.LR. (2d) 609; (1961) 28-D.L.R. (2d) 81; (1962) 33-D.L.R. (2d) 124; d'appuyer la position prise par le tribunal d'arbitrage formé en vertu de la convention collective à l'effet que pour les fins de l'arbitrage une convention collective est un contrat et que le tribunal pouvait octroyer des dommages-intérêts pour infraction à une convention collective, même si un tel pouvoir n'était pas explicitement inclus dans la convention. L'Amendement de 1962 à la loi des Relations ouvrières du Manitoba établit spécifiquement qu'une infraction à une convention collective est passible d'une poursuite pour dommages-intérêts devant les tribunaux.Avant la passation du Code du Travail du Québec, trois versions du bill 54 furent présentées à la Législature québécoise. La première version du bill définissait un syndicat d'une façon fondamentalement semblable à la définition contenue dans la loi des Relations ouvrières. La définition incluait à la fois les syndicats incorporés comme syndicats professionnels et les syndicats non-incorporés, les premiers étant des entités légales et les derniers des associations volontaires. Cependant, le Bill ajoutait une nouvelle disposition (S. 38) par laquelle un syndicat « accrédité » ou « reconnu » devait posséder une personnalité légale quoique restreinte à l'exercice des droits et recours selon le Code du Travail ou toute convention collective. En conséquence, le statut d'associations volontaires devait être restreint aux syndicats non-incorporés n'étant pas « certifiés » ni « reconnus ». La définition de convention collective était semblable à celle contenue dans la loi des Relations ouvrières et reflétait l'approche selon laquelle une convention collective ressemblait à un « gentlemen's agreement », et non à un contrat donnant recours devant les tribunaux. Le Bill contenait des dispositions concernant le caractère exécutoire des conventions collectives qui considérait une infraction à de telles conventions comme une offense en vertu du Code et pouvant faire l'objet de poursuites et de convictions sommaires. La première version du bill prévoyait aussi que les dispositions de la convention collective applicables à un employé feraient partie pleno jure de son contrat individuel d'emploi et que l'employé pouvait réclamer les avantages de telles dispositions (S. 57). Cette disposition devait permettre aux employés de faire valoir leurs griefs en vertu des conventions collectives directement devant les tribunaux et conséquemment cette disposition venait en conflit avec les dispositions du Code concernant le mode obligatoire de règlement des griefs en vertu de la convention collective en dehors des tribunaux par voie d'arbitrage obligatoire et à sentence exécutoire.La seconde version du bill 54 prévoyait qu'« une convention collective donne ouverture à tous les droits et recours prévus par la loi pour la sanction des obligations.» Le libellé de la section 54 impliquait l'abandon de l'approche qui apparentait les conventions collectives à des « gentlemen's agreements » et qui était fondamentalement celle de la loi des Relations ouvrières et de la première version du Code, et qui rendait les conventions collectives des contrats civils permettant recours devant les tribunaux. La section 54 venait en conflit avec les dispositions concernant l'arbitrage obligatoire et à sentence exécutoire des conflits en vertu des conventions collectives.La troisième version du Bill laissait tomber les sections 38, 54 et 57; en conséquence le Code ainsi adopté retournait au concept contenu dans la loi des Relations ouvrières du Québec à l'effet que tous les syndicats (exceptés ceux incorporés en vertu de la loi des Syndicats professionnels) sont des associations volontaires sans statut propre et que les conventions collectives ne constituent pas des contrats donnant recours devant les tribunaux., The author in this article examines the status of unions and collective agreements under the new Québec Labour Code. He first presents a brief historical review of the laws and decisions concerning this matter not only in Québec but also in the common law provinces. He goes on stating the conditions prevailing in Québec as well as in the other provinces up to the enactment of the Code. He finally analyses the new provisions of the Labour Code governing the status of unions and collective agreements covered by it.

The purpose of this article is to explore the connection between state-sponsored exporting of labour and the rise in human smuggling and trafficking. The cases of Spain and the Phillippines are analysed. We delineate how and why each state engaged in labour export and what the corresponding ramifications have been. In the case of Spain, we examine the creation and operation of the Instituto Espanol de Emigracion (Spanish Institute of Emigration) from 1956–1973. In the Philippine case we investigate the country’s “overseas employment program” instituted in 1974 under the Labour Code. This policy later evolved into the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA). In this study we use a historical comparative framework to demonstrate how state migrant exporting schemes can lead to the same outcome: illicit migration. Although we can make no definitive conclusions on the size and scope of state influence on illicit migration, we nonetheless find the conceptualization of states as possible agents for human smuggling or trafficking relevant in terms of theory generation and policy implications.

We examine the way a leading US-based, global athletic shoe and sports apparel firm applies its labour code of practice to four prime contractors located in South Korea. The content of the code, th...

This paper analyses the extent to which current wage and labour regulations can help reducing poverty levels in Vietnam. It begins with an overview of population and employment trends since 1990. It then discusses wage and labour regulation in Vietnam, particularly the 2002 amendments to the 1994 labour code, focusing on the minimum wage regulation in enterprises, farms labourers and female and junior labourers. The paper then analyses labour market imperfections and the provision of safety nets Vietnam, whilst linking with the poverty alleviation strategy. Next, the paper presents data analysis at the commune level, based on the Vietnam Living Standard Survey of 1998, comparing the northern and southern communes. The findings show significant gender differences within regions for daily agricultural wages, and significantly lower wages in the North. As for industrial wages in the state and private sector, we find that northern wages are below the legal minimum wage in the textile industry, and differ significantly between gender and regions, and where children under eighteen tend to earn as little as 25 percent of adults’ salaries. In the formulation of poverty alleviation policies, this paper highlights the importance of recognizing: the regional and sectoral related-characteristics of the labour market; the impact of gender differences in wage labour; and the implications on child labour.

Child labour has been receiving much attention and the opinions of what is “ thebest interest of the child” and what is possible to achieve go wide apart.Children themselves and organizations working with them have very differentviews on the causes for and consequences of child work and what should bedone about it (Woodhead, 1999).The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) prohibits economicexploitation of children and their involvement in work that could be harmfulor that interferes with their education. It also requires States Parties to regulateages for admission to and conditions for employment. The Labour Code ofVietnam from 1994 states: “ A labourer must be at least 15 years old . . .” butit also provides for a number of occupations, which are accepted for childrenand not considered harmful.Domestic service is a common occupation of teenage girls all around theworld (Black, 1997). For girls, for whom education is not a realistic option, itis one of few opportunities available to earn a well-needed income. In thedebate it has been highlighted as a form of invisible child labour with greatrisks of being harmful (Blagbrough, 1999; UNICEF, 1999). The girls spendmost, if not all their time, con”ned within the walls of the employer’ s housewith few opportunities to meet others (Black, 1997). In some countries they may be very young and with little or no contact with their families(Blanchet, 1996; Janak, 2000). The risks for physical, sexual and psychologi-cal abuse and exploitation are obvious, since the girls are left to the mercy oftheir employer’ s families. At the same time domestic service is widelyaccepted. In many western countries a system of “ au pair” has been developed,in which young people can combine language studies abroad with domestic

Investigates the Polish Labour Code and how it has been updated to modern standards similar to those int he rest of Europe. States the Polish Labour code doctrine is for maintaining the multiplicity of employment contracts, defined by the Labour Code in corresponding to various needs and interests of both employers and employees. Sets out four main conclusions in depth, which cover labour relations contracts in full and how they are perceived to affect the workers and bosses.

The labour legislation influence on the labour market situation is analysed in the article. The changes in legislation that took place in the transition period are considered as well as the Labour Code of the 2002. The authors show that the Russian labour legislation is characterized by excessive rigidity of the norms, which does not correspond with the current social and economic situation. The attempts to create high level of legal protection of the employees or their groups in many cases lead to worsening of their position at the labour market.

Employee rights are protected by the Labour Code and other labor laws. Protective function of this branch of law is fullfilled, among others, by provisions on the prohibition of discrimination. In certain circumstances, the provisions provide legal protection also for candidates for employees, indicating what a potential employer may require from the candidate, how he should behave towards him and what are the permitted criteria for evaluating job-seeker in the course of the recruitment for the position. Discrimination may therefore occur at the stage of looking for a job by a potential employee, especially during the recruitment procedure. The Labour Code contains open catalog of causes of discrimination, and therefore often appear doubts as to whether the action of the employer bears the hallmarks of discrimination, whether it is an acceptable action. Because of this, it is reasonable to attempt to answer the question whether it is permissible to differentiate the situation of candidates for jobs at employment relationships due to a prior criminal record. This will determine the relationship between the discretionary power of the employer to choose the best candidate for the job, and the equal treatment of all potential employees, including due to the content of their criminal cards.

Revista da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade Lusófona do Porto

The paper deals with issues of the requirement of written form in legal transactions in the labour law after adoption of the New Civil Code and related laws and changes of current law (coming in effect since 1st January 2014). This article summarizes inflicted changes in the Labour Code especially changes in the way to conduct the written form. In first place, brief summarization of changes in the perception of legal transactions in the New Civil Code will be given. In second place, consequent changes in the Labour Code coming in effect since January 2014 will be explained. This will be followed by comparison of this new way of regulation of selected labour-law transactions (e.g. dismissal of employment, immediate termination of employment etc.) with the principle of contractual freedom which is proclaimed as one of the leading principles of New Civil Code and Civil (Private) Law in general including Labour Law.

The thesis deals with the topic of employee benefits in the Czech Republic. At first, the thesis sets employee benefits to specific area of the company, which is an in-house social policy of the company. Following part deals with the legislative framework, which regulates the providing of these benefits in 2015. The thesis includes a chapter describing the employee benefits, their structure and their various distribution systems. Analysis of the trends in the provision of employee benefits creates another part of the thesis. Three types of employee benefits are analyzed in detail: meal allowances, educational allowances and contributions to employees' pension savings. In the conclusion of thesis is explored the whole system of employee benefits used in the company Siemens Ltd., where are analyzed its individual benefits and includes evaluation of a questionnaire.

Jurismat : Revista Jurídica

Rigorous work occupy by farms protection in personal and labour law relations. Rigorous work is divided on two part. First part deal with characteristic and development adjustment of law as concern personal protection. Next , in this introducing part devote adjustment of personal protection including institutional and civil delimitation. Second part deal with farms protection in personal and labour law relations. At rigious work lay contains above all protection employees privacy mainly in relation to technological development and protection employees law of property. No forgotten life and healthy law protection in working law relation. Itś also mentioned civic honour and dignity protection , name and personal nature. No skip problems of subject to the statue of compensation limitations no property money detriment and usability illegal proof in civic court process. In rigious work is indicate legal adjustment contained in new civic code of law. Rigious work ending by devote protection of personal date, well treatment and ban discrimination in legal working relations.

This study addresses issues relating to procedural and labour law regulations governing legal proceedings in labour disputes, such as re-instatement cases, in the courts of general jurisdiction. Emphasis is placed on issues relating to the time limits set for filing employment lawsuits and the manner whereby these time limits shall be counted. The study provides grounds for a proposed change in the rules of territorial jurisdiction over labour disputes and identifies issues relating to evidence relevance and evidence admissibility in re-instatement law cases. The study highlights challenges associated with the presentation of evidence by employees. Special attention is given to imperfections in the statutory dismissal procedure. The study offers a dismissal procedure for each ground for employee dismissal set forth in Article 81 of the Russian Federation Labour Code and proposes ways to streamline the labour and civil procedural laws in the context of the issues addressed.

A major change to the Labour Code Law nr. 40/2011 was considered that the introduction of graduates of higher education institutions of the probation period. The provisions of art. 31 para. 6 of the Labour Code, according to which, the manner of internship shall be regulated by special law, found its realization by Law. 335/2013 on the internship for university graduates who completes the summary of the Labour Code provisions on the matter, stating that a contract is required internship, once the individual employment contract. Such a contract can not be regarded as an addendum to the individual employment contract or a clause as probation (article 31 of the Labour Code) or as a training clause of the individual employment contract (art. 20 para 2 lit. of the Labour Code) , but is a stand-alone contract, civilian named character enhancement to individual employment contract.