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SPEX (Spectropolarimeter for Planetary EXploration) is an innovative, compact instrument for spectropolarimetry, and in particular for detecting and characterizing aerosols in planetary atmospheres. With its ∼1-liter volume it is capable of full linear spectropolarimetry, without moving parts. The degree and angle of linear polarization of the incoming light is encoded in a sinusoidal modulation of the intensity spectrum by an achromatic quarter-wave retarder, an athermal multiple-order retarder and a polarizing beam-splitter in the entrance pupil. A single intensity spectrum thus provides the spectral dependence of the degree and angle of linear polarization. Polarimetry has proven to be an excellent tool to study microphysical properties (size, shape, composition) of atmospheric particles. Such information is essential to better understand the weather and climate of a planet. The current design of SPEX is tailored to study Martian dust and ice clouds from an orbiting platform: a compact module with 9 entrance pupils to simultaneously measure intensity spectra from 400 to 800 nm, in different directions along the flight direction (including two limb viewing directions). This way, both the intensity and polarization scattering phase functions of dust and cloud particles within a ground pixel are sampled while flying over it. We describe the optical and mechanical design of SPEX, and present performance simulations and initial breadboard measurements. Several flight opportunities exist for SPEX throughout the solar system: in orbit around Mars, Jupiter and its moons, Saturn and Titan, and the Earth. © 2010 SPIE.

SPEX (Spectropolarimeter for Planetary EXploration) is an innovative, compact instrument for spectropolarimetry, and in particular for detecting and characterizing aerosols in planetary atmospheres. With its ∼1-liter volume it is capable of full linear spectropolarimetry, without moving parts. The degree and angle of linear polarization of the incoming light is encoded in a sinusoidal modulation of the intensity spectrum by an achromatic quarter-wave retarder, an athermal multiple-order retarder and a polarizing beam-splitter in the entrance pupil. A single intensity spectrum thus provides the spectral dependence of the degree and angle of linear polarization. Polarimetry has proven to be an excellent tool to study microphysical properties (size, shape, composition) of atmospheric particles. Such information is essential to better understand the weather and climate of a planet. The current design of SPEX is tailored to study Martian dust and ice clouds from an orbiting platform: a compact module with 9 entrance pupils to simultaneously measure intensity spectra from 400 to 800 nm, in different directions along the flight direction (including two limb viewing directions). This way, both the intensity and polarization scattering phase functions of dust and cloud particles within a ground pixel are sampled while flying over it. We describe the optical and mechanical design of SPEX, and present performance simulations and initial breadboard measurements. Several flight opportunities exist for SPEX throughout the solar system: in orbit around Mars, Jupiter and its moons, Saturn and Titan, and the Earth. © 2010 SPIE.

The new CRISP filter at the Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope provides opportunities for observing the solar atmosphere with unprecedented spatial resolution and cadence. In order to benefit from the high quality of observational data from this instrument, we have developed methods for calibrating and restoring polarized Stokes images, obtained at optical and near infrared wavelengths, taking into account field-of-view variations of the filter properties. In order to facilitate velocity measurements, a time series from a 3D hydrodynamical granulation simulation is used to compute quiet Sun spectral line profiles at different heliocentric angles. The synthetic line profiles, with their convective blueshifts, can be used as absolute references for line-of-sight velocities. Observations of the Ca II 8542 Å line are used to study magnetic fields in chromospheric fibrils. The line wings show the granulation pattern at mid-photospheric heights whereas the overlying chromosphere is seen in the core of the line. Using full Stokes data, we have attempted to observationally verify the alignment of chromospheric fibrils with the magnetic field. Our results suggest that in most cases fibrils are aligned along the magnetic field direction, but we also find examples where this is not the case. Detailed interpretation of Stokes data from spectral lines formed in the chromospheric data can be made using non-LTE inversion codes. For the first time, we use a realistic 3D MHD chromospheric simulation of the quiet Sun to assess how well NLTE inversions recover physical quantities from spectropolarimetric observations of Ca II 8542 Å. We demonstrate that inversions provide realistic estimates of depth-averaged quantities in the chromosphere, although high spectral resolution and high sensitivity are needed to measure quiet Sun chromospheric magnetic fields. At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 1: Submitted. Paper 2: Manuscript. Paper 3: Submitted. Paper 4: Submitted.

In solar-type stars, the generation of magnetic field through dynamo effect concentrates in the tachocline, a thin layer of strong shear located at the interface between the radiative core and the convective envelope. Below 0.35 solar mass, main sequence stars are fully convective and thus do not possess a tachocline. And yet, some fully-convective dwarfs are very active, and strong photospheric magnetic fields have been detected. The generation of magnetic field in these objects therefore relies on non-solar dynamo processes. In spite of recent theoretical advances, dynamo processes in fully convective dwarfs remain poorly understood. The observational part of this work has consisted in a spectropolarimetric survey of a small sample of M dwarfs located on both sides of the fully-convective divide. Large-scale magnetic topologies and their dependency on main stellar parameters - mass and rotation period - have been investigated with Zeeman-Doppler Imaging techniques. This study reveals a sharp transition in magnetic topologies of M dwarfs close to the fully convective boundary. The presence of an unexpected behaviour below 0.2 solar mass is also evidenced : stars with similar parameters host radically different large-scale magnetic fields.; Dans les étoiles de type solaire la génération de champ magnétique par effet dynamo se concentre dans la tachocline, une fine zone de fort cisaillement à l'interface entre le cœur radiatif et l'enveloppe convective. En dessous de 0.35 masse solaire, les étoiles de la séquence principale sont entièrement convectives et ne possèdent donc pas de tachocline. Or certaines de ces étoiles sont très actives, et des champs magnétiques très intenses ont été mesurés. La dynamo de ces objets doit donc reposer sur des processus physiques différents de ceux à l'œuvre dans le Soleil. En dépit des avancées théoriques récentes, la dynamo des étoiles entièrement convective reste mal comprise. La partie observationnelle de ce travail a consisté en l'étude d'un échantillon d'étoiles situées de part et d'autre de la limite entièrement convective à partir d'observations spectropolarimétriques et de la technique d'imagerie Zeeman-Doppler. Cela a permis d'analyser comment les paramètres stellaires, période de rotation et masse, influent sur le champ magnétique à grande échelle. Un changement brutal de topologie magnétique des naines M est mis en évidence à proximité de la limite entièrement convective. Un comportement inattendu est également détecté en dessous de 0.2 masse solaire : des étoiles de paramètres stellaires quasi-identiques présentent des topologies magnétiques radicalement différentes. Ce travail observationnel est doublé d'une approche numérique : des simulations MHD 3D «star-in-a-box» visent à mieux comprendre les divergences qui existent entre les premières simulations et les observations.

The measurement of vector magnetic fields on the sun is one of the most important diagnostic tools for characterizing solar activity. The ubiquitous solar wind is guided into interplanetary space by open magnetic field lines in the upper solar atmosphere. Highly-energetic solar flares and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) are triggered in lower layers of the solar atmosphere by the driving forces at the visible ``surface'' of the sun, the photosphere. The driving forces there tangle and interweave the vector magnetic fields, ultimately leading to an unstable field topology with large excess magnetic energy, and this excess energy is suddenly and violently released by magnetic reconnection, emitting intense broadband radiation that spans the electromagnetic spectrum, accelerating billions of metric tons of plasma away from the sun, and finally relaxing the magnetic field to lower-energy states. These eruptive flaring events can have severe impacts on the near-Earth environment and the human technology that inhabits it. This dissertation presents a novel inversion method for inferring the properties of the vector magnetic field from telescopic measurements of the polarization states (Stokes vector) of the light received from the sun, in an effort to develop a method that is fast, accurate, and reliable. One of the long-term goals of this work is to develop such a method that is capable of rapidly-producing characterizations of the magnetic field from time-sequential data, such that near real-time projections of the complexity and flare-productivity of solar active regions can be made. This will be a boon to the field of solar flare forecasting, and should help mitigate the harmful effects of space weather on mankind's space-based endeavors. To this end, I have developed an inversion method based on genetic algorithms (GA) that have the potential for achieving such high-speed analysis.

SPEX (Spectropolarimeter for Planetary EXploration) is an innovative, compact remote-sensing instrument for detecting and characterizing aerosols. With its 1-liter volume it is capable of full linear spectropolarimetry, without moving parts. High precision polarimetry is performed through encoding the degree and angle of linear polarization of the incoming light in a sinusoidal modulation of the intensity spectrum. This is achieved by using an achromatic quarter-wave retarder, an athermal multiple-order retarder and a polarizing beamsplitter behind each entrance pupil. Measuring a single intensity spectrum thus provides the spectral dependence of the degree and angle of linear polarization. Polarimetry has proven to be an excellent tool to study microphysical properties (size, shape, composition) of atmospheric particles. Such information is essential to better understand the weather and climate of a planet. Although SPEX can be used to study any planetary atmosphere, including the Earth’s, the current design of SPEX is tailored to study Martian dust and ice clouds from an orbiting platform: a compact module with 9 entrance pupils to simultaneously measure intensity spectra from 350 to 800 nm, in different directions along the flight direction (including two limb viewing directions). This way, both the intensity and polarization scattering phase functions of dust and cloud particles within a ground pixel are sampled while flying over it. In the absence of significant amounts of dust and clouds, the surface properties can be studied. SPEX provides synergy with instruments on rovers and landers, as it provides a global view of spatial and temporal variations of the planet.

SPEX (Spectropolarimeter for Planetary EXploration) is an innovative, compact remote-sensing instrument for detecting and characterizing aerosols. With its 1-liter volume it is capable of full linear spectropolarimetry, without moving parts. High precision polarimetry is performed through encoding the degree and angle of linear polarization of the incoming light in a sinusoidal modulation of the intensity spectrum. This is achieved by using an achromatic quarter-wave retarder, an athermal multiple-order retarder and a polarizing beamsplitter behind each entrance pupil. Measuring a single intensity spectrum thus provides the spectral dependence of the degree and angle of linear polarization. Polarimetry has proven to be an excellent tool to study microphysical properties (size, shape, composition) of atmospheric particles. Such information is essential to better understand the weather and climate of a planet. Although SPEX can be used to study any planetary atmosphere, including the Earth’s, the current design of SPEX is tailored to study Martian dust and ice clouds from an orbiting platform: a compact module with 9 entrance pupils to simultaneously measure intensity spectra from 350 to 800 nm, in different directions along the flight direction (including two limb viewing directions). This way, both the intensity and polarization scattering phase functions of dust and cloud particles within a ground pixel are sampled while flying over it. In the absence of significant amounts of dust and clouds, the surface properties can be studied. SPEX provides synergy with instruments on rovers and landers, as it provides a global view of spatial and temporal variations of the planet.

The angular momentum evolution of intermediate mass stars, and the impact of the magnetic field on this evolution, especially during the pre-main sequence (PMS) phase of stellar evolution, are poorly understood. In this framework, the aims of my thesis work was on one hand to provide observational constraints to this problem, and on the other hand to take the first steps toward a full modeling of PMS evolution at intermediate mass, taking into account rotation and magnetic field.First, I used the eclipsing binary system RS Cha to test the physics of the PMS stellar evolution models. I redetermined masses and radii of both components of this binary and I measured the metallicity of the system, using spectroscopic data. Our knowledge of the fundamental parameters of this system is therefore now complete. I then tested the current PMS stellar evolutionary models, by matching the observed fundamental parameters of RS Cha to those calculated by the models. I conclude that these models are able to reproduce the observations, provided that the new solar mixture of Asplund et al. (2004) is used. This work confirms independently the results of Asplund and co-authors, in the general context of wide discussion on the validity of this mixture.The second part of my thesis is dedicated to the study of the magnetism of a sample of 50 Herbig Ae/Be stars, i.e. PMS stars of intermediate mass. Using the new ESPaDOnS spectropolarimeter located at CFHT, we have detected 4 magnetic stars in this sample. We first conclude that the proportion of magnetic stars among Herbig Ae/Be stars is very close to the proportion of magnetic stars among main sequence A and B stars. Secondly, using a very simple oblic rotator model, I showed that the structure of these magnetic fields is very close to a global dipolar structure, as is the magnetic field of the Ap/Bp stars. These results bring strong arguments in favour of the fossil field hypothesis, proposed to explain the origin of the magnetic field of Ap/Bp stars., L'évolution du moment cinétique des étoiles de masse intermédiaire (1.5-15 Msun) et l'importance du champ magnétique dans cette évolution, surtout dans la phase pré-séquence principale (PMS), sont des aspects encore très mal connus de l'évolution stellaire. Mes travaux se situent dans ce cadre, et leur objectif est d'une part de fournir des contraintes observationnelles, et d'autre part d'effectuer les premiers pas vers une modélisation complète de l'évolution pré-séquence principale à ces masses-là, tenant compte de la rotation et du champ magnétique.Dans un premier temps, j'ai utilisé le système binaire à éclipses PMS RS Cha pour tester la physique contenue dans les modèles d'évolution des étoiles PMS. Pour cela j'ai tout d'abord complété notre connaissance des paramètres de ce système en redéterminant la masse des 2 composantes et en mesurant précisément leur métallicité, à l'aide de données spectroscopiques. La comparaison des paramètres fondamentaux des composantes PMS de RS Cha à ceux calculés m'a permis de valider les modèles actuels d'évolution PMS, à condition d'utiliser la nouvelle composition chimique solaire d'Asplund et al. (2004). Ces travaux apportent par ailleurs une confirmation indépendante des résultats d'Asplund et al., au moment où un débat est engagé sur la validité de ces nouvelles abondances.La deuxième partie de ma thèse fut consacrée à l'étude du magnétisme d'un échantillon de 50 étoiles Ae/Be de Herbig, étoiles PMS de masse intermédiaire, à l'aide du spectropolarimètre ESPaDOnS, nouvellement installé au CFHT. Nous avons détecté 4 étoiles magnétiques dans cet échantillon, c'est-à-dire que la proportion d'étoiles magnétiques parmi les étoiles Ae/Be de Herbig est proche de celle des étoiles Ap/Bp magnétiques parmi les étoiles A et B de la séquence principale. A l'aide d'un modèle simple de rotateur oblique, j'ai montré que la structure de ces champs magnétiques est proche d'une structure dipolaire à grande échelle comme le champ magnétique des étoiles Ap/Bp. Ces résultats constituent un argument fort en faveur de l'hypothèse d'un champ fossile pour expliquer l'origine du champ magnétique des étoiles Ap/Bp.

The angular momentum evolution of intermediate mass stars, and the impact of the magnetic field on this evolution, especially during the pre-main sequence (PMS) phase of stellar evolution, are poorly understood. In this framework, the aims of my thesis work was on one hand to provide observational constraints to this problem, and on the other hand to take the first steps toward a full modeling of PMS evolution at intermediate mass, taking into account rotation and magnetic field.First, I used the eclipsing binary system RS Cha to test the physics of the PMS stellar evolution models. I redetermined masses and radii of both components of this binary and I measured the metallicity of the system, using spectroscopic data. Our knowledge of the fundamental parameters of this system is therefore now complete. I then tested the current PMS stellar evolutionary models, by matching the observed fundamental parameters of RS Cha to those calculated by the models. I conclude that these models are able to reproduce the observations, provided that the new solar mixture of Asplund et al. (2004) is used. This work confirms independently the results of Asplund and co-authors, in the general context of wide discussion on the validity of this mixture.The second part of my thesis is dedicated to the study of the magnetism of a sample of 50 Herbig Ae/Be stars, i.e. PMS stars of intermediate mass. Using the new ESPaDOnS spectropolarimeter located at CFHT, we have detected 4 magnetic stars in this sample. We first conclude that the proportion of magnetic stars among Herbig Ae/Be stars is very close to the proportion of magnetic stars among main sequence A and B stars. Secondly, using a very simple oblic rotator model, I showed that the structure of these magnetic fields is very close to a global dipolar structure, as is the magnetic field of the Ap/Bp stars. These results bring strong arguments in favour of the fossil field hypothesis, proposed to explain the origin of the magnetic field of Ap/Bp stars.; L'évolution du moment cinétique des étoiles de masse intermédiaire (1.5-15 Msun) et l'importance du champ magnétique dans cette évolution, surtout dans la phase pré-séquence principale (PMS), sont des aspects encore très mal connus de l'évolution stellaire. Mes travaux se situent dans ce cadre, et leur objectif est d'une part de fournir des contraintes observationnelles, et d'autre part d'effectuer les premiers pas vers une modélisation complète de l'évolution pré-séquence principale à ces masses-là, tenant compte de la rotation et du champ magnétique.Dans un premier temps, j'ai utilisé le système binaire à éclipses PMS RS Cha pour tester la physique contenue dans les modèles d'évolution des étoiles PMS. Pour cela j'ai tout d'abord complété notre connaissance des paramètres de ce système en redéterminant la masse des 2 composantes et en mesurant précisément leur métallicité, à l'aide de données spectroscopiques. La comparaison des paramètres fondamentaux des composantes PMS de RS Cha à ceux calculés m'a permis de valider les modèles actuels d'évolution PMS, à condition d'utiliser la nouvelle composition chimique solaire d'Asplund et al. (2004). Ces travaux apportent par ailleurs une confirmation indépendante des résultats d'Asplund et al., au moment où un débat est engagé sur la validité de ces nouvelles abondances.La deuxième partie de ma thèse fut consacrée à l'étude du magnétisme d'un échantillon de 50 étoiles Ae/Be de Herbig, étoiles PMS de masse intermédiaire, à l'aide du spectropolarimètre ESPaDOnS, nouvellement installé au CFHT. Nous avons détecté 4 étoiles magnétiques dans cet échantillon, c'est-à-dire que la proportion d'étoiles magnétiques parmi les étoiles Ae/Be de Herbig est proche de celle des étoiles Ap/Bp magnétiques parmi les étoiles A et B de la séquence principale. A l'aide d'un modèle simple de rotateur oblique, j'ai montré que la structure de ces champs magnétiques est proche d'une structure dipolaire à grande échelle comme le champ magnétique des étoiles Ap/Bp. Ces résultats constituent un argument fort en faveur de l'hypothèse d'un champ fossile pour expliquer l'origine du champ magnétique des étoiles Ap/Bp.

Since the early 1970s, inversion techniques have become the most useful tool for inferring the magnetic, dynamic, and thermodynamic properties of the solar atmosphere. Inversions have been proposed in the literature with a sequential increase in model complexity: astrophysical inferences depend not only on measurements but also on the physics assumed to prevail both on the formation of the spectral line Stokes profiles and on their detection with the instrument. Such an intrinsic model dependence makes it necessary to formulate specific means that include the physics in a properly quantitative way. The core of this physics lies in the radiative transfer equation (RTE), where the properties of the atmosphere are assumed to be known while the unknowns are the four Stokes profiles. The solution of the (differential)RTE is known as the direct or forward problem. From an observational point of view, the problem is rather the opposite: the data are made up of the observed Stokes profiles and the unknowns are the solar physical quantities. Inverting the RTE is therefore mandatory. Indeed, the formal solution of this equation can be considered an integral equation. The solution of such an integral equation is called the inverse problem. Inversion techniques are automated codes aimed at solving the inverse problem. The foundations of inversion techniques are critically revisited with an emphasis on making explicit the many assumptions underlying each of them. © The Author(s) 2016., This work has been partially funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad, under Projects Nos. ESP2013-47349-C6 and ESP2014-56169-C6, including European FEDER funds.

Traditional transmissive polarimetric methods can be used for wavelengths above 123 nm where birefringent materials transmit light and create significant birefringence. Below 123 nm, no suitable solution is known to measure the four Stokes parameters on a large wavelength range. Therefore, we study here an innovative reflective (rather than transmissive) polarimeter working in the far ultraviolet (FUV) range from 90 to 130 nm. We take advantage of the phase shift created by reflections as well as the different reflectivities for p (orthogonal ⊥ ) and s (parallel ∥ to the plane of incidence) polarizations to design an FUV polarimeter. Simulation of the analyzer and modulator using Mueller matrices coupled to polarimetric efficiencies calculations allowed optimization of reflective polarimeters for the first time, to the best of our knowledge. This opens up a new perspective for FUV polarimetry below 123 nm.

Over the last few decades, magnetic fields have been detected in almost all kinds of stars. This led to innovative studies on the mapping of magnetic fields and their impact on the circumstellar environment. To go further, we need to use spectroscopy and polarimetry together, in the UV and visible range. The UV domain is used to study the stellar wind and stellar environment, whereas the visible range allows to study the surface of the star. UV+visible spectropolarimetry enables the global study of magnetospheres. This has to be done over at least one rotation period of the star. Therefore, we need to go to space in order to see the UV range and to obtain uninterrupted observations on a complete stellar rotation period. The international consortium UVMag has been created in 2010 to discuss, study and promote a space mission for the study of stellar magnetospheres using simultaneous UV and visible space spectropolarimetry. From the technical point of view, pure spectroscopy in space, both in the UV and visible ranges, has already been successfully used, for example on IUE, and would be very efficient with current detectors and technologies. On the other hand, the UV+visible spectropolarimeter is the most ambitious instrumental challenge for a future space mission. Indeed, until now, no such optical spectropolarimeter has flown on a space mission, despite the fact that the French (particularly the LESIA and IRAP laboratories) are the specialists for such instruments (such as ESPaDOnS at CFHT or Narval at TBL). The first part of my thesis consisted in elaborating the optical design of the polarimetric module for the spectropolarimeter of the space mission Arago, in the framework of the UVMag consortium. I studied various innovative concepts that could be adapted to the specific constraints of this instrument. The specifications indeed show the need for a unique polarimeter covering the complete spectral range [119-888] nm. Moreover, the usual compacity, lightness and robustness constraints of a space instrument are added to these specifications. I focused my work on 2 different polarimeter concepts, a first one based on the polarimetric module of the X-shooter instrument using a temporal modulation and an achromatization of the extraction efficiencies of the Stokes parameters, and a second one based on spatial modulation of the polarization, offering a static polarimeter. I adapted these 2 concepts to the specific constraints of Arago and integrated them to the complete optical design of the instrument. The first concept, using temporal modulation, has been chosen as the baseline for the instrument proposed to ESA for the Cosmic Vision calls M4 and M5. The goal was then to demonstrate the feasibility of the two concepts.; Ces dernières décennies, des champs magnétiques ont été détectés dans quasiment tous les types d'étoiles. Ces découvertes ont donné lieu à des études innovantes sur la cartographie des champs magnétiques et leur impact sur l'environnement stellaire. Pour aller encore plus loin il est nécessaire d'allier la spectroscopie à la polarimétrie, dans l'UV et le visible. L'UV permet d'étudier les vents stellaires et l'environnement circumstellaire, tandis que le visible permet d'étudier la surface de l'étoile. La spectropolarimétrie UV+visible permet ainsi d'étudier les magnétosphères dans leur globalité. Ceci doit être fait sur au moins une période complète de rotation de l'étoile. Pour cela, il faut aller dans l'espace, à la fois pour atteindre le domaine UV et pour obtenir des observations ininterrompues sur une période de rotation stellaire complète. Le consortium international UVMag a été créé en 2010 pour discuter, étudier et promouvoir une mission spatiale pour l'étude des magnétosphères stellaires via de la spectropolarimétrie spatiale dans les domaines UV et visible simultanés. D'un point de vue technique, la spectroscopie spatiale pure, y compris dans l'UV, a déjà été utilisée avec succès, par exemple sur IUE, et serait très performante avec les détecteurs et les technologies disponibles aujourd'hui. Par contre, le spectropolarimètre UV+visible est la partie instrumentale la plus ambitieuse pour une future mission spatiale. En effet, alors que les français (en particulier le LESIA et l'IRAP) sont les spécialistes de ce type de spectropolarimètres dans le visible pour des télescopes au sol (comme ESPaDOnS au CFHT ou Narval au TBL), aucun instrument de ce type n'a encore été embarqué sur une mission spatiale, encore moins en UV. La première partie de ma thèse consistait à concevoir le design optique du module polarimétrique pour le spectropolarimètre de la mission Arago, dans le cadre du consortium UVMag. J'ai donc étudié et recherché différents concepts innovants qui pourraient s'adapter aux contraintes très particulières de cet instrument. En effet, les spécifications imposent l'utilisation d'un unique polarimètre pour tout le domaine spectral [119-888] nm. Les contraintes du spatial s'ajoutent à cela avec un besoin de compacité, légèreté et robustesse. Je me suis concentré sur 2 concepts de polarimètre différents, un premier basé sur le module de polarisation de l'instrument X-Shooter avec une modulation temporelle de la polarisation et une achromatisation des efficacités d'extraction des paramètres de Stokes et un second basé sur une modulation spatiale de la polarisation, permettant d'obtenir un polarimètre statique. J'ai adapté ces 2 concepts aux spécificités d'Arago et intégré ces 2 systèmes au design optique global de l'instrument. Le premier concept de modulation temporelle a été choisi pour l'instrument d'Arago qui a été soumis à l'ESA dans le cadre des appels Cosmic Vision M4 et M5. Dans un deuxième temps, l'objectif de ma thèse était de prouver la faisabilité des concepts évoqués plus haut.