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20. yüzyılda iki büyük harp (I. Dünya Harbi ve II. Dünya Harbi) geçiren dünyada bilim ve askerî teknolojilerle birlikte çeşitli harp yöntemleri de ortaya çıktı. Bu yöntemlerden biri muharebelerde çeşitli mikrobik (mikroplu) canlıların kullanılmasıydı. Bu canlıların kullanılmasıyla ortaya çıkan mikrop harbi, 20. yüzyılın harp literatürü içerisinde kendisine müstakil bir alan bulmuştur. Haşere ve mikrop dışı bazı canlıların da harpte silah olarak kullanılmasıyla mikrop harbi daha geniş bir anlam bularak biyolojik harp adını almıştır. Biyolojik harp silahları, muharebe halinde taarruzda ve savunma durumlarında kullanıldığı gibi barış durumlarında da kullanılabilmektedir. Dolayısıyla günümüz dünyasında çeşitli salgın hastalıklara sebebiyet veren mikrobik canlılar, bir harp silahı olma potansiyeli taşımaktadır.Çalışmada pasif harp türleri içerisinde sınıflandırabileceğimiz biyolojik harp hakkında bilgi verilmiştir. Mevcut bilgilerden yola çıkarak da 21. yüzyılda dünyayı etkisi altına almış olan korona virüsün bir harp silahı olup olamayacağı tartışılmaya çalışılmıştır. Çalışmanın örneklemi korona virüstür. Adı geçen virüs, biyolojik harp silahlarının genel özellikleri minvalinde incelenmiş ve korona virüsün bu özelliklerden ne kadarını taşıdığı karşılaştırılarak ortaya konulmuştur. Çalışmanın ana kaynaklarını Genelkurmay Başkanlığının çıkarmış olduğu Ordu Dergisi’nde yer alan askerî makaleler ve korona virüs hakkında yazılmış bilimsel çalışmalar oluşturmaktadır. Nitekim iki farklı alanın bilgileri nitel ve mukayese yöntemiyle analiz edilerek çalışma ortaya konulmuştur., Various methods of warfare have emerged along with science and military technologies in the world which has experienced two major wars (World War I and World War II) in the 20th century. One of these methods was the use of various microbial creatures in battles. The germ warfare that has emerged with the use of these creatures has found a separate field for itself in the military literature of the 20th century. By using some non-pest and non-germ creatures as weapons in warfare, germ warfare has found a broader meaning and received the name biological warfare. Biological warfare weapons can be used in battles, offensive, and defensive situations, as well as in peace situations. Therefore, microbial creatures that cause various pandemics in today's world can have the potential to become a weapon of war.In the study, information is given about biological warfare that we can classify into passive warfare types. Based on the available information, it has been tried to discuss whether the coronavirus, which has affected the world in the 21th century, can be a weapon of war. The sampling of the study consists of the coronavirus. The mentioned virus was assessed based on the general characteristics of biological warfare weapons, and it was revealed in the study by comparing how many of these characteristics the coronavirus carries. The main sources of the study are military articles in the Journal of the Army, which was published by the Presidency of General Staff, and scientific studies written about coronavirus. Thus, the information of two different fields was analysed by qualitative and comparative methods, and the study was presented.

Özet Çiçek hastalığı tarihin ilk dönemlerinden beri neden olduğu büyük salgınlar ve yıkım (ölümler) ile insanlık hafızasında derin izler bırakmıştır.Çiçek hastalığıetkeni olan variola virus ve aynıailede yer alan virüslerden bazıları bilim ve tıp dünyasında birçok sıra dışı değişimin bir parçası olmuştur. Kadim uygarlıklarda aşılamanın ilkörnekleri (variyolasyon), insanlarda kullanılmaküzere geliştirilen ilk güvenli aşılar (sığırçiçeği virusu, vaccinia virus), viral patogenezin ilk enfeksiyon modeli (ectromelia virus) ve dünya genelinde eradike edilen ilk insan enfeksiyonunun (çiçek virusu) poksviruslar olmasıbu virüsleri bilim dünyasında ayrıcalıklıbir yerde tutmaktadır.Çiçek virusu (variola major) yüksek mortaliteli enfeksiyonlara ve salgınlara neden olmasıile biyolojik savaşajanıolarak sınıflandırılmakta (kategori A) ve dünya genelinde bir endişe kaynağıolmaya devam etmektedir. Bu virüslerçeşitli biyolojiközellikleri ile de benzersizdir.İnsan enfeksiyonları ile ilişkili en büyük virüslerden olan poksviruslar çok sayıda protein kodlamaları, diğer DNA virüslerinden farklıolarak başlıca hücre sitoplazmasında replike olmalarıve sahip olduklarıdiğer avantajlıözellikleri ile aşıgeliştirme ve vektör temelli tedavi çalışmalarında elverişli bir model olarak yaygın bir şekilde kullanılmaktadır. Poksvirusların 10’dan fazla türüinsanlarda enfeksiyonlara neden olmaktadır ve sadece insanlardan izole edilen birkaçtürüdışında bu virüsler genel olarak zoonotik enfeksiyonlar ile ilişkilidir. Bu türlerden biri olan maymunçiçeği virusu (monkeypox virus, MPXV)çiçek aşısıkaynaklımuhtemelçapraz bağışıklık nedeniyle geçmişdönemlerde insanlık için bir tehdit olmaktan uzak görülmüştür. Bununla beraber, 1970'lerin başlarında Orta ve Batı Afrika’da raporlanan lokal maymun çiçeği olgularının yerini, 2000’li yıllarda Amerika’daki ve Sudan’daki küçükölçekli salgınlar almışve sonraki dönemlerde başta Demokratik Kongo Cumhuriyeti ve Nijerya olmaküzere Afrikaülkelerinde sürekli artan bir şekilde olgu bildirimlerinin yapılması ile bu virüsçiçek virusunun eradikasyonundan sonra Poxviridae ailesinin enönemli türüolarak görülmeye başlanmıştır. Hayvan rezervuarlarıile temas olasılığınıartıran epidemiyolojik değişikliklerin yanı sıra, çiçek aşısıolmamışnüfusun giderek artan oranıile yeni ve beklenmedik bulaşpaterni insan maymunçiçeği enfeksiyonlarının yoğunlaşmaya devam edebileceğini göstermektedir. Son günlerde birçokülke ve sağlık otoriteleri maymunçiçeği virusu ve çiçek virusu ile ilgili mevcut ve olası riskleri yeniden değerlendirirken, bazıülkeler salgın olasılığıve biyogüvenlik risklerine karşıçeşitliönlemler almaya başladılar. Bu makalenin temel amacı, poksvirus türlerinin genel biyolojiközelliklerini ele almak, konakçı dağılımlarını incelemek ve insan enfeksiyonlarıyla ilişkili poksvirus türlerine atfedilen risklere genel bir bakışsunmaktır. Abstract Since the earliest times of history, smallpox left deep traces in the memory of humanity with the great epidemics and destruction (deaths) it caused. Variola virus, which is the causative agent of smallpox, and some other viruses in the same family have been a part of many extraordinary changes in the field of science and medicine. Poxviruses have a privileged position in the scientific world due to the fact that the first examples of immunization (variolation) in ancient civilizations, the first safe vaccines developed for use in humans (cowpox virus, vaccinia virus), first infection model of viral pathogenesis (ectromelia virus), and the first human infection eradicated globally (smallpox). Smallpox virus (variola major) is classified as a biological warfare agent (category A), causing high-mortality infections and epidemics, and remains a worldwide concern. These viruses are also unique with their various biological features. Poxviruses, one of the largest viruses associated with human infections, are widely used as a convenient model in vaccine development and vector-based treatment studies, with large number of protein coding, ability to replicate primarily in the cell cytoplasm (unlike other DNA viruses), and their other advantageous features. More than 10 species of poxviruses cause infections in humans, and except for a few species that are only isolated from humans, these viruses are generally associated with zoonotic infections. Monkeypox virus (MPXV), one of these species, was regarded far from being a threat to humanity in the past due to possible cross-immunity caused by smallpox vaccine. However, local monkeypox cases reported in Central and West Africa in the early 1970s were replaced by small-scale outbreaks in the United States and Sudan in the 2000s, and in the following periods, this virus is considered to be the most important species of the Poxviridae family after the eradication of smallpox virus due to the increasing number of case reports in African countries, especially in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Nigeria. In addition to epidemiological changes that increase the risk of contact with animal reservoirs, the growing proportion of the unvaccinated population and the new and unexpected transmission pattern indicate that human monkeypox infections may continue to intensify. In recent days, while many countries and health authorities have been re-evaluating the existing and potential risks related to monkeypox virus and smallpox virus, some countries have started to take various measures against the possibility of epidemic and biosecurity risks. The main purpose of this article is to consider the general biological characteristics of poxvirus strains, to examine their host distribution, and to provide an overview of the risks attributed to poxvirus strains associated with human infections.

Background and Objective: The recent multi-country outbreak of human monkeypox (HMPX) in non-endemic regions poses an emerging public health concern. University students in health schools/faculties represent a core knowledgeable group that can be helpful to study from a public health point of view. As future healthcare workers, assessment of their knowledge and attitude towards emerging zoonotic viral infections can be helpful to assess their taught material and courses with potential improvement if gaps in knowledge were identified. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the level of HMPX knowledge, conspiracy beliefs regarding emerging virus infections, as well as their associated determinants among university students studying Medicine, Nursing, Dentistry, Pharmacy, Medical Laboratory Sciences, and Rehabilitation in Jordanian health schools/faculties. In addition, we sought to evaluate the correlation between HMPX knowledge and the extent of holding conspiracy beliefs regarding emerging viral infection. Materials and Methods: A convenient sample of university students was obtained through an electronic survey distributed in late May 2022 using the chain-referral approach. Assessment of HMPX knowledge and general attitude towards emerging virus infections was based on survey items adopted from previously published literature. Results: The study sample comprised 615 students with a mean age of 20 years and a majority of females (432, 70.2%) and medical students (n = 351, 57.1%). Out of eleven monkeypox knowledge items, three were identified correctly by >70% of the respondents. Only 26.2% of the respondents (n = 161) knew that vaccination to prevent monkeypox is available. Age was significantly associated with better HMPX knowledge for a majority of items. Older age, females, and affiliation to non-medical schools/faculties were associated with harboring higher levels of conspiracy beliefs regarding emerging virus infections. Our data also indicate that lower levels of HMPX knowledge were associated with higher levels of conspiracy beliefs. Conclusion: The current study pointed to generally unsatisfactory levels of knowledge regarding the emerging HMPX among university students in Jordanian health schools/faculties. Conspiracy beliefs regarding emerging virus infections were widely prevalent, and its potential detrimental impact on health behavior should be evaluated in future studies.

In the history of mankind there are known cases of conducting experiments with a goal against people. After all, there has been eugenic research, or research leading to the creation of biological weapons. Such experiments are usually hidden from the public and governed by the internal and classified regulations of particular states. That is why it is important for the domestic legal orders world-wide to establish not only research methods and ways of conducting experiments (from the point of view of medical art and effectiveness of research) but also – and perhaps even more importantly – legal principles and rules limiting the conduct of medical experiments, and to establish rules of conduct with the effect of saving and prolonging the life and health of the patient. This article will analyse the Polish legal regulations and Polish doctrine in the field as a case study, describing an example of the national measures implemented to provide control of the research and medical experiment procedures.

This article offers strategic observations about the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. It assesses whether the disease outbreak represents an intelligence failure. It describes how the global response to ...

This article provides an Asia-Pacific perspective on biological weapons and their relevance to nuclear deterrence in the pandemic era. The entire class of biological weapons is banned by international law; however, biological weapons are generally less costly and less technically challenging to develop than nuclear weapons. Conversely, nuclear weapons are openly possessed by multiple countries in the Asia-Pacific despite their corresponding cost and technical complexity. These two types of weapons of mass destruction – biological and nuclear – do not exist in isolation but in a multifactorial geopolitical environment where the threat and control of one impacts that of the other. A third factor that holds the potential to influence this dynamic is the increasing likelihood of natural outbreaks and pandemics. This paper explores potential intersections of biological and nuclear weapons in the pandemic context. First, it describes the threat of biological weapons, including history, threat assessment methodology, and specific threats in the Asia-Pacific region. Next, it reviews options for biological weapons control. Finally, it discusses nuclear deterrence and escalation in the context of both natural and deliberate biological events. It concludes with a summary of key points and recommendations for regional security and stability.

Anthrax is an infectious disease occurring worldwide and is a threat to global society due to its possible misuse as a biological weapon. Bacillus anthracis is the etiologic agent of this disease which can be transmitted via inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact. Globally, it is estimated around 2000 anthrax cases occur per year. Upon infection, the organism can cause cytolysis of macrophage and produce exotoxin capable of inducing edema and lymphatic blockage. Another challenge posed by the organism is the ability to form spores in harsh conditions. Various antibiotics have been used to fight the disease. However, like many other microbes, B. anthracis may develop resistance, thus the discovery of new therapeutics is urgently required. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been discovered since 1980s and attracted researchers in the antimicrobial field. In this review, the work and studies on the attempts to discover potent AMPs to treat anthrax together with the brief overview of the synthesis and modification pathways of several AMPs have been presented.