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Taxonomic status of birches (Betula pendula, B. pubescens or their hybrids) is identified by molecular genetics assay of the ploidy level using SSR-markers in moist and peatland forest types. Studies are performed on experimental forest sites of the Institute of Forest Science in the center of the East European plain. B. pendula × B. pubescens hybrids accounted for 11% of the combined dataset. Thus, the birch hybrids are essential components of natural communities. We demonstrate for the first time that B. pendula is predominant, the hybrids are rare, and B. pubescens occurs sporadically on oligotrophic peat bogs. B. pendula grew in the canopy while B. pubescens and the hybrids grew in second story of moist blueberry pine forests. Identification of birch species using keys for the flora species is proven to be confusing due to the occurrence of different combinations of traits. All genetically identified B. pendula trees had twigs growing upwards, without pendulous traits.

The new isocaryophyllene derivatives: 6-hydroxyisocaryophyllene [(1R,4Z,6R,9S)-8-methylene-11,11-dimethylbicyclo[7.2.0]undec-4-ene-6-ol], epoxide of 6-hydroxyisocaryophyllene [(6R)-hydroxy-(4R,5S)-epoxyisocaryophyllene [(1R,4R,5S,6R,9S)-4.5-epoxy-8-methylene-11,11-dimethylbicyclo[7.2.0]undeco-6-ol], (6R)-acetoxyisocaryophyllene [(6R)-acetoxy-(1R,4Z,9S)-8-methylene-11,11-dimethylbicyclo[7.2.0]undec-4-ene], isocaryphyllenic acid [(1R,4E,9S)4-carboxy-8-methylene-11,11-dimethylbicyclo[7.2.0]undec-4-ene] were first detected in the birch vegetative buds. 6-Hydroxyisocaryophyllene and epoxide of 6-hydroxyisocaryophyllene are isolated by from the Betula pendula Roth. birch buds etheric extract by chromatography on silica gel. (6R)-Acetoxyisocaryophyllene was synthesized. The structure of 6-hydroxyisocaryophyllene and epoxide of 6-hydroxyisocaryophyllene isolated from the buds were determined by NMR spectroscopy. Caryophyllenic acids are isolated from the ether extract with an aqueous solution of alkali. Caryophyllenic acids are separated by chromatography on silica gel. The structures of caryophyllenic acid and isocaryphyllenic acid isolated from the Betula grandifolia Litv., B. albo-sinensis Burk., B. fusca Pall.ex Georg, B. obscura A. Kotula, B. litwinowii Doluch., B. hallii Howell, B. grandifolia Litv. birch buds were determined by X-ray diffraction analysis. The physico-chemical characteristics and NMR data of 6-hydroxyisocaryophyllene, epoxide of 6-hydroxyisocaryophyllene and all the isolated acids are given. The obtained mixtures of compounds were analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The gas chromatographic retention indices of all identified compounds were determined.

The aim of the research was to assess the possibility to use deciduous tree bark in the biomonitoring of urban areas. The tree bark taken from various deciduous tree species growing in the Opole Province (south-western Poland) was used for the research. The bark was collected from tree trunks in the period of June 2–26, 2017. Concentrations of the heavy metals were determined in the barks by flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS). On the basis of the research, it was determined that type of tree, distance from pollution source, elevation off the ground and the side of trunk from which bark was sampled all influence the research results. A comparison of the values of coefficient of variation CV demonstrated that the bark Quercus robur and Betula pendula is more heterogeneous, e.g. for Fe CVQuercus robur is 48.0 % and CVBetula pendula = 42.3 %, compared to Fagus sylvatica (CVFe = 22.6%). In order to limit the influence of environmental factors (e.g. air movement caused by vehicles and pedestrians) on the samples pollution level with analytes, it seems that the optimum level for collecting the samples is 1.5–2.0 m. It was demonstrated that deciduous tree bark can be used as bioindicator in assessing the pollution of atmospheric aerosol by heavy metals, due to its occurrence in urban areas. However, it is important to validate all stages of the analysis procedure that uses deciduous tree bark.

The peculiarities of the influence of LED-lighting of different spectral composition with varying ratios of physiologically significant spectral ranges on biometric parameters and the pigment composition of the leaf plate of microclonally propagated aspen (Populus tremula L.) and birch (Betula pendula Roth.) plants were identified during the adaptation ex vitro, which indicate the species specificity of plants response to the illumination spectrum.

The assessment of the state of atmospheric air quality is presented with the use of indicators of fluctuating asymmetry of Betula pendula, Padus avium and Crataegus sanduinea sheet plastics. The study was carried out at the junction of the Western spurs of the Eastern Sayan and Minusinsk basin between the rivers Sissim, Syda and their tributaries. Leaf samples were taken from four sites. Leaf collection was carried out at the end of the growing season in 2017, during the stop of leaf growth by the method of V. M. Zakharov (2000). The sample of leaves from one site is 30 pieces, a total of 120 leaves are processed. The results were processed according to the method of S. I. Marchenko (2008). The indicator "width of the left and right halves of the leaf" is variable according to the results of the study. The size of the left and right halves of the leaves varies in Crataegus sanguinea within 0.65 mm, for Betula pendula the width of the leaf blades varies in the range of 0.45 mm, for Padus avium the width of the leaf blades varies by 0.15 mm. the Sample from the forest is characterized by low integral indices of asymmetry. The nature of environmental quality is characterized as an initial deviation from the norm. Pesticides and carbon dioxide emissions from vehicles are likely to be stress factors for the environment in the study area. The ecological condition of the natural area is characterized on average as satisfactory.

The validity of some concepts underlying the enemy release hypothesis was tested using the example of Acer negundo, an invasive tree species in Eurasia. For this purpose, the frequency of leaf damage and the proportion of leaf area removed by phyllophagous invertebrates were compared between A. negundo and two native species, Betula pendula and Salix caprea. The leaves of these trees were collected in the city of Miass, the Southern Urals, where three rounds of sampling were carried out in the same habitats during the same growing season. A total of 10 000 leaves were examined to record damage by leaf chewers, miners, or gall makers, other kinds of damage, and the proportion of removed leaf area. By the end of the growing season, the proportion of damaged leaves in A. negundo was estimated at 37%, compared to 66% in B. pendula and 78% in S. caprea, with damage by specialized endophagous species (leaf miners and gall makers) in the first species being very low or absent; the proportion of removed leaf area (relative to the total) in A. negundo was less than 1%, compared to 5.8% in B. pendula and 7.5% in S. caprea. Thus, the level of leaf damage by phyllophagous invertebrates in A. negundo growing in the Southern Urals proved to be lower than in tree species native to this region. Therefore, the absence or low activity of natural enemies for A. negundo may be one of the factors accounting for the success of its invasion in Eurasia.

The processes of lipid peroxidation induced by heavy metals in leaves of woody species under the influence of an industrial enterprise were studied. In the assimilation organs of Populus italica, a high accumulation of most compounds of heavy metals was found (intratissue contamination was over five-fold higher than in the control), with zinc as the most abundant metal. Aesculus hippocastanum in the zone of severe pollution most actively accumulated nickel, while Betula pendula accumulated cadmium. At early stages of leaves development, high rates of intratissue contamination were observed for all species. In the leaves of P. italica, during their morphogenesis, the level of secondary peroxidation products (TBA-active compounds) was lowest among the studied species and did not exceed the control values by more than 1.8 times. This is apparently due to increased intensity of functioning of antioxidant enzyme systems, such as glutathione and ascorbic (Halliwell-Asada cycle), and high phytochelatin and metallothionein biosynthesis in leaves, which stipulate its highest physiological stability to altered environment. Instead, in the leaves of A. hippocastanum and B. pendula with low levels of accumulation of most heavy metals, the content of TBA-active products increased 2.7 and 2.9 times, respectively, comparing to the control. It has been shown that plantations of P. italica in industrial conditions were relatively stable with a total score of assimilation organs, branches and trunk damage up to 1.3, while in A. hippocastanum and B. pendula a longterm effect of pollutants at monitoring sites resulted in 25–40% of leaves damaged by necroses and chloroses. Skeletal branches of both species were affected by rot, crown rarity reached more than 40%, and frost cracks 20–25% larger than in the control occurred. Aesculus hippocastanum and B. pendula are characterized by an unstable qualitative state of 30–60% of individuals which are at various stages of dying or significantly depressed

Desorption atmospheric pressure photoionization (DAPPI) is an ambient mass spectrometry (MS) technique that allows the analysis of both polar and nonpolar compounds directly from the surfaces of various sample types. Here, DAPPI was used to study the chemical profiles in different parts of birch and alder tree barks. Four distinct fractions of Betula pendula (silver birch) bark were collected from three different developmental stages of the stem, after which the chemical profiles of the different tissue types were measured. Of special interest were triterpenoids, a class of important defensive substances, which are found in the bark of the silver birch. Additionally, the chemical profiles of lenticels and the surrounding surfaces in the phellem of B. pendula (silver birch), Alnus glutinosa (black alder), and Alnus incana (gray alder) were screened with DAPPI. Another ambient MS technique, laser ablation atmospheric pressure photoionization (LAAPPI), was further used for the mass spectrometry imaging of lenticels on the B. pendula phellem. All the studied birch bark fractions showed individual chemical profiles in DAPPI. The mass spectra from the young apical stem and the transition zone resembled each other more than the mature stem. Instead, the phellem was found to contain a high amount of triterpenoids in all the developmental stages of the stem. The most intense peaks in the DAPPI mass spectra of the birch bark fractions were those of betulin and lupeol. Betulinic and betulonic acid peaks were intense as well, and these compounds were detected especially in the lenticels of the tree samples.

The study aimed to assess response of juvenile progeny of seven forest tree species, Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies, Betula pendula, Alnus glutinosa, Populus tremula, Quercus robur and Fraxinus excelsior, and their populations to different combinations of climate change-related multiple stressors, simulated in a phytotron under elevated CO2 concentration: (1) heat + elevated humidity (HW); (2) heat + frost + drought (HFD); (3) heat + elevated humidity + increased UV-B radiation doses + elevated ozone concentration (HWUO); and (4) heat + frost + drought + increased UV-B radiation doses + elevated ozone concentration (HFDUO). Effects of the complex treatments, species and species-by-treatment interaction were highly significant in most of the growth, physiological and biochemical traits studied, indicating general and species-specific responses to the applied treatments. For deciduous trees, height increment was much higher under HW treatment than in ambient conditions (control) indicating a positive effect of elevated temperature and better water and CO2 availability. HFD treatment caused reduction of height increment in comparison to HW treatment in most species except for Q. robur and F. excelsior which benefited from lower humidity. Treatments HWUO and HFDUO have caused substantial damages to leaves in fast growing deciduous P. tremula, A. glutinosa and B. pendula, and resulted in their lower height increment than in HW treatment, although it was the same or even higher than that in the control. Rates of photosynthesis in most of the tree species were greatest in HFD treatment. A lower photosynthetic rate (compared to control) was observed in B. pendula, P. tremula and F. excelsior in HW treatment, and in most species—in HWUO treatment. Compared to control, intrinsic water use efficiency in all treatments was significantly lower in P. tremula, A. glutinosa and F. excelsior and higher in conifers P. sylvestris and P. abies. Significant population-by-treatment interactions found for most traits showed variation in response of populations, implying that this reflects adaptive potential of each tree species. The observed responses may not always be considered as adaptive as deteriorating growth of some populations or species may lead to loss of their competitiveness thus compromising regeneration and natural successions.

Postfire (2010) formations of Pinus sylvestris and Betula pendula (51°48′30.1′′ N, 39°23′58.4′′ E) have been studied. This article presents the results of these studies for 2015–2016. Descriptions of these formations have been carried out since 2012. Methods for the analysis of the structures of plant communities are of especial importance, both for an understanding of their annual ecological state and the identification of plant resistance to the pyrogenic factor. Information on the beginning of restoration of the phytocenosis structure and flora, on the change of dominants in vegetation layers, an increase of the projective cover, and the formation of forest phytocenosis is given on example of common and pyrogenic associations of these formations. A decrease in weed species abundance and their projective cover was noted. The current list of flora includes 84 species from 75 genera, 33 families, and 2 divisions: Pinophyta and Magnoliophyta. The dominant families are Poaceae with 12 species (14.1%), Asteraceae with eight species (9.4%), and Fabaceae with six species (7%). The small list of dominant families with a small number of species confirms the large disturbance of flora by the pyrogenic factor. The dominance of rhizome plants (42 species, 44.6%) and a small number of cespitose plants (4 species, 4.8%) indicates the advantage of the forest phytocenotic group. The presence of a xerophytic group (15 species, 17.9%) indicates increased insolation and a decreased moisture content in these postfire formations. Eight geoelements and 14 types of habitats have been identified. The European one predominates, with 53 species (63.1%) and 12 types of habitats.

We studied effects of environmental factors on pollen fertility of Betula pendula Roth.) in 15 sites of the city of Barnaul (Russia, Altai Territory), differing in traffic intensity. We found that low temperature was more stressful for the development of birch pollen compared to high one. When the temperature drops below +8°C, the amount of sterile pollen in all locations significantly increased regardless of the anthropogenic load, on average exceeding 8%. With an increase in temperature of more than +10 °C, the proportion of sterile pollen also increased, but the jump was not as sharp as in cold weather. The optimum temperature for the formation of fertile pollen grains was in the range of 8–10 °С. The optimal humidity for the development of fertile pollen of B. pendula was 40–45%. The increase in air dryness led to a significant decrease in the quality of pollen grains, the proportion of sterile ones exceeded 8%. According to the transmission coefficient (Keff = 0.1514), the dominant factor in the development of sterile pollen grains of birch was the level of air pollution (concentration of carbon monoxide). Air temperature (Keff = 0.1427) and humidity (Keff = 0.1427) affected equally the quality of pollen. The proposed model makes it possible to predict the level of sterile birch pollen in the conditions of Barnaul depending on the weather conditions of vegetation and on the level of pollutants in the atmosphere. Key words: Betula pendula Roth.; Pollen sterility; Pollution; Carbon monoxide; Air temperature; Humidity; Information statistics References Batos, B., Veselinovi�?, M., Rakonjac, L., & Miljkovi�?, D. (2019). Morphological properties of pollen as bioindicators of deciduous woody species in belgrade parks (Serbia). Poplar, 203, 19-30. Bytnerowicz, A., Omasa, K., & Paoletti, E. (2007). Integrated effects of air pollution and climate change on forests: A northern hemisphere perspective. 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The response of a plant organism to the effects of negative environmental factors, including the effects of multicomponent pollution, can be determined using a morphometric approach, setting the range of variability of biometric indicators of assimilation organs. The obtained data allow us to identify the directions of evolution of leaf shape and parameters under conditions of anthropogenic environment. The purpose of this work is to evaluate the variability of morphometric characteristics of lamina of Вetula pendula Roth. under technogenic conditions of the city of Dnipro. Leaf samples were collected in September – October 2018 at five test areas in the city of Dnipro (100 sheets each), which differed in the level of environmental pollution. For each leaf according to the method, five dimensions were measured on the left and right sides: width of the left and right halves of the leaf; the length of the vein of the second order, the second from the base of the leaf; the distance between the bases of the first and second veins of the second order; the distance between the ends of the first and second veins of the second order; the angle between the main vein and the second vein from the base of the leaf of the second order. It is shown that by the degree of increase of variation in the conditions of influence on the plants of B. pendula under conditions of multicomponent contamination of the environment the investigated signs of the lamina can be arranged as follows: 5 < 2 < 1 < 4 < 3. It is established that the most stable feature of the B. pendula lamina in the conditions of technogenesis is the angle between the main vein and the second vein from the base of the leaf of the second order, and the most variable one is the distance between the bases of the first and second veins of the second order. A tendency was found for the differences in the reactions of plants from the relatively clean area and contaminated territories: the control trees had a coefficient of variation higher for the right half of the leaf (right-sided asymmetry), whereas plants of the technogenic zones had left-sided asymmetry.

The main reserves of amber in Ukraine are concentrated primarily in forests in the territory of Rivne, Zhytomyr and Volyn Regions. Today, in these regions of Ukraine, the problem of unauthorized illegal mining of amber, which poses a threat to the ecological and socio-economic components of the north-western regions of Ukraine, is affecting the development of individual sectors of the economy. By its destructive effect on the nature of the extraction of amber in the territory of Polissya can be compared with the manifestations of negative geological processes. Sarnensky Forestry Enterprise SE is located in the northern part of Rivne Region in the territory of Sarnensky administrative region. On the basis of mapping materials and forest descriptions, areas of forest plantations within which amber was mined were selected. Based on the analysis of the relevant materials, considering the generally accepted methodology in forestry, temporary and permanent test areas have been established. The start of mass illegal mining of amber in Rivne Region took place in 2014. This has led to environmental and economic imbalances, including in forestry. In Sarnensky Forestry Enterprise SE, illegal amber mining sites were recorded in Nemovitsky, Tinnensky and Strashivsky forest districts. Mineral mining sites are characterized by the destruction of geological rocks and the degradation of the fertile soil layer, disturbance of root systems and loss of tree plantations, destruction of living soil cover, disturbance of the hydrological regime of the territory, which subsequently causes associated problems such as damage to plants by pathogenic microorganisms and their drying, changing biodiversity, the emergence of erosion processes. The analysis of the typological component of the forest that has undergone transformation shows that the most disturbed lands belong to the wet type of forest, where relatively fertile sandy and loamy soils with mesotrophic vegetation prevail. According to the results of the analysis, the most disturbed is the growth zone of Pinus sylvestris L., Alnus glutinosa L. and Betula pendula ROTH. From the ratio between the damaged areas and the age component of the stand, we have found that the most degraded areas with middle-age plantings. It was revealed that the largest area of damaged plantings grew in a segond of site class. It has been established that stands with a stand density of 0.7 are damaged to the greatest extent, resulting in the loss of valuable medium-full stands. To conclude, amber mining sites are not massive in general, but indisputably in the disturbed territories, there is a direct and secondary imbalance of all environmental indicators, which directly entails a deterioration of the status of stands and losses in the field of forestry.

The article presents the results of a so far most extensive study on the effect of tree age on variation of the chemical structure of silver birch wood carried out in Poland. Field studies took place in 12 forestry districts distributed throughout the country. In each district, study sites were selected with stands aged approximately 30, 50, and 70 years in fresh broadleaved forest habitats, as well as in five districts in fresh mixed broadleaved forest habitats. Analyses were made of the contents of substances soluble in cold and hot water, ethanol and 1% NaOH, as well as the contents of cellulose, lignin, pentosans and ash, and the pH, of wood from 306 silver birch trees. Tree age was shown to have a significant effect on the contents of cellulose, pentosans, ash, and substances soluble in 1% NaOH. In the case of the other characteristics, age was found to have no significant effect. The cellulose content was lowest in 30-year-old stands and increased with tree age. Similar observations were made regarding ash content. Contents of pentosans and substances soluble in 1% NaOH were highest in the wood of the youngest trees. Since birch wood is used by the pulp and paper, board and energy industries, the knowledge of its chemical composition, depending on the age of the trees, can be of potential practical importance for its further application.

The aim of the research was to determine the rate of the damage of xylophagous insects for silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) stands in the Left Bank Forest-steppe of Ukraine. Evaluation of physiological harmfulness considered a health condition of inhabited trees, features of maturating feeding and pathogens vectoring for the cases of so-called ‘provoked aggressiveness’ and its absence. Evaluation of technical harmfulness considered a location and depth of larval galleries and pupal chambers, colonized sapwood surface, and stem part. Evaluation of general harmfulness considered physiological harmfulness, technical harmfulness and generation number. Among 22 xylophagous insect species, 4 species were widespread (Agrilus viridis (Linnaeus, 1758), Xylotrechus rusticus (Linnaeus, 1758), Xyleborinus saxeseni (Ratzeburg, 1837), and Xyleborinus attenuatus (Blandford, 1894)); 3 species were common, 6 species were rare and 9 species were single. The highest physiological harmfulness is expected for Tremex fuscicornis (Fabricius, 1787) and Tremex magus (Fabricius, 1787), Сhrysobothris affinis (Fabricius, 1774), Agrilus viridis (Linnaeus, 1758), Xylotrechus rusticus, and bark beetles. The highest technical harmfulness is expected for wood wasps – Tremex spp., jewel beetles Dicerca furcata (Thunberg, 1787) and Dicerca alni (Fischer von Waldheim, 1824), longhorn beetle Xylotrechus rusticus, and xylomycetophages – Xyleborinus sp. All widespread species are evaluated by a wide range of physiological harmfulness. Three of them (all except Agrilus viridis) are evaluated by highly technical harmfulness and from moderate to highly general harmfulness. Among the species having a common occurrence, Tremex fuscicornis can be highly harmful only in the case of tree weakening by negative factors, another two species can be non-harmful, and Xiphydria longicollis (Geoffroy, 1785) can be low harmful in the case of tree weakening by negative factors. Among the rare species, Scolytus ratzeburgi Janson, 1856 can be low or moderately harmful and Tremex magus can be low or highly harmful depending on the presence or absence of other negative factors. Among single species, Zeuzera pyrina (Linnaeus, 1761) can be moderately harmful because it colonizes almost healthy trees. The rest three species can be moderately harmful in the case of tree weakening by negative factors.

Background: Pretreatment is the critically important step for the production of ethanol from lignocelluloses. In this study, hardwood birch (Betula pendula) and softwood spruce (Norway spruce) woods were pretreated with a newly synthesized morpholinium ionic liquid, 1-H-3-methylmorpholinium chloride ([HMMorph][Cl]), followed by enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation to ethanol. Results: [HMMorph][Cl] was synthesized using inexpensive raw materials, i.e., hydrochloric acid and N-methyl morpholine, following a simple process. The influence of pretreatment time (2, 3, 5, and 8 h) and temperature (120 and 140°C) in terms of hydrolysis efficiency was investigated. Glucose yields from enzymatic hydrolysis were improved from 13.7% to 45.7% and 12.9% to 51.8% after pretreatment of birch and spruce woods, respectively, under optimum pretreatment conditions (i.e., at 140°C for 3 h) as compared to those from pristine woods. Moreover, the yields of ethanol production from birch and spruce were increased to 34.8% and 44.2%, respectively, while the yields were negligible for untreated woods. Conclusions: This study demonstrated the ability of [HMMorph][Cl] as an inexpensive agent to pretreat both softwood and hardwood.How to cite: Mohammadi M, Shafiei M, Karimi K. Improvement of ethanol production from birch and spruce pretreated with 1‐H‐3‐methylmorpholinium chloride. Electron J Biotechnol 2019;41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejbt.2019.07.004. Keywords: Betula, Biofuels, Cellulase, Cellulose, Ethanol, Hydrolysis, Ionic liquid, Lignin, Lignocellulose, Morpholinium ionic liquid, Pretreatment

The morphological and anatomical features of the assimilation apparatus Taraxacum officinale Wigg., growing under the conditions of a rock dump of the Kedrovsky coal mine in the Kemerovo Region, were studied. It was experimentally established that the specific environmental conditions of the rock dump cause morphological and anatomical changes in the leaves of the dandelion. At the level of leaf morphology, there is a decrease in the average leaf area, thickening of leaf blades, the formation of a trend towards a decrease in the number of leaves in the outlet. At the level of the anatomical structure, there is a significant increase in the thickness of mesophyll, a tendency to a decrease in the thickness of the tissues of the upper and lower epidermis, a decrease in the number of cells of the upper and lower epidermis by 1 mm2 and an increase in the size of stomata in the tissues of the lower and upper epidermis, a decrease in the number of stomata by 1 mm2 and stomatal index on the upper epidermis. Under the conditions of the rock dump, an increase in the number of reliable correlations between the anatomical parameters of the leaf of Taraxacum officinale Wigg., as well as anatomical signs with indicators of atmospheric pollution, was established, to a greater extent due to the formation of positive correlations that are known to control the development of biosystems and are critical for body periods. Keywords: Morphology; Anatomy; Leaf; Dandelion officinalis; Environmental Conditions; Rock Dumps; Opencast coal mine References Akateva, T.G. (2014). The use of bioindication method in assessing the quality of atmospheric air. Modern science agro industrial production: Materials of the International scientific-practical conference dedicated to the 135th anniversary of the first secondary educational institution of the Trans-Urals - the Alexander Real School and the 55th anniversary of the GAU of Northern Zauralie (October 23-24, 2014). Tyumen: GAU of Northern Trans-Urals, 1, 3-6. (in Russian) Bissing, D.R. (1982). Evolution of leaf architecture in the chaparal species Fremontodendron californicum ssp. californicum (Sterculiaceae). Amer J Bot, 6 (69), 957-972. Bykov, A.A., Schastlivtsev, Ye.L., Pushkin, S.G., Klimovich, M.Y.U. (2002). Development and testing of a local model for the deposition of pollutants of industrial origin from the atmosphere onto the underlying surface. Chemistry for Sustainable Development, 5(10), 563-573. Bykov, A.A., Schastlivtsev, Ye.L., Pushkin, S.G., Smirnova, O.V. (2006). Modeling of soil pollution by atmospheric emissions from industrial facilities in a coal-mining region. Polzunovsky Bulletin, 2, 209-217. Ceulemans, R., Jmpens, J., Lemeur, R., Moermans, R., Samsuddin, Z. (1978). Water movements in the soil-poplar atmosphere system. Oecol Plant, 13(1), 1-12. Frolov, A.K. (1998). The environment of a big city and the life of plants in it. SPb: Nauka, 328. Ivanova, L.A. (2014). Adaptive features of leaf structure in plants of different ecological groups. Russian Journal of Ecology, 45(2), 107-115. Krokhmal, I.I. (2015). Functional anatomy and morphology of leaf Campanula sibirica L. Ecology and noospherology, 26(1–2), 54-65. Lauri P.E., Marceron, A., Normand, F., Anaelle Dambreville., Jean-Luc Regnard. (2014). Soil water deficit decreases xylem conductance efficiency relative to leaf area and mass in the apple. The Journal of Plant Hydraulics, 1(e 0003), 12. Manakov, Y.U.A. (2012). Restoration of vegetation in technogenic landscapes of Kuzbass, CandSci. Dissertation, Biology. Kemerovo, 374p. ( in Rassian) Menshakova, M.Y.U., Zhirov, V.K., Khaitbayev, A.KH., Gaynanova, R.I., Kislykh, Ye.Ye. (2008). Variability of the photosynthetic apparatus: boreal and subarctic ecosystems. M Nauka, 117p. Neverova, �?.А., Legoshchina, O.M., Bykov, A.A. (2013). Anatomy of leaves of Betula pendula (Roth) affected by air emissions in Industrial area of kemerovo city. Middle East Journal of Scientific Research, 17(3), 354-358. Order of the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia of 06.06.2017 No. 273 On approval of methods for calculating the dispersion of emissions of harmful (polluting) substances in the atmospheric air. Polovnikova, M.G. (2007). Ecological and physiological features of lawn plants at different stages of ontogenesis in urban environments. CandSci. Dissertation Abstract, Biology. Nizhny Novgorod, 23. Programs for ecology and environmental activities [Electronic resource]. Available at: http: //www.lpp.ru (accessed 20.08.2019) (in Russian) Scheepens, J.F., Frey, E.S., Stocklin, J. (2010). Genotypic and environmental variation in specific leaf area in a widespread Alpine plant after transplantation to different altitudes. Oecologia, 164, 141-150. Zhongqiang, L., Dan, Y. (2009). Factors affecting leaf morphology: A case study of Ranunculus natans C.A. Mey. (Ranunculaceae) in the arid zone of northwest China. Ecol Res, 24, 1323-1333.

International audience; Tree diversity is one of the drivers of forest resistance to herbivores. Most of the current understanding of the diversity resistance relationship comes primarily from short-term studies. Knowing whether tree diversity effects on herbivores are maintained over time is important for perennial ecosystems like forests. We addressed the temporal dynamics of the diversity resistance relationship by conducting a 6-year survey of pine attacks by the pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa (PPM) in a tree diversity experiment where we could disentangle tree composition from host density effects. During the first years after planting the trees, PPM attacks on maritime pine Pinus pinaster were reduced in the presence of birch Betula pendula, a fast-growing non-host tree (i.e. associational resistance). This effect was maintained but faded with time as the pines eventually grew taller than neighbouring birches. The number of repeated attacks on individual pine trees also decreased in mixed pine-birch stands. Pine density had a positive effect on stand colonisation by PPM and a negative effect on the proportion of trees that were attacked. Pines were less likely to be repeatedly attacked as pine density increased, with attacks being spread over a larger number of host trees. Collectively, these results unravel the independent contribution of tree species composition and host density to tree resistance to herbivores. Both processes had directional changes over time. These results indicate that the resistance of planted forests to herbivores can be improved by carefully choosing the composition of mixed forests and the timing of species planting.

The amount of total soluble protein cytogenetic indices, germination ability in the seed progeny of Betula pendula in areas with different levels of anthropogenic pollution was studied. The seed progeny of Betula pendula has an increased germination ability and total protein in areas with low pollution levels as compared to the control group (seeds collected in the ecologically clean territory) and to the same parameters for the areas with high levels of anthropogenic pressure. A high positive correlation was established between seed germination and the amount of total soluble protein. The parameter “amount of total protein” is characterized as a marker of seed germination, which determines the possibility of their germination. Cytogenetic parameters (mitotic activity, percentage ratio of cell number at mitosis stages, level of mitosis pathologies, level of cells with persistent nucleoli at metaphase - anaphase mitosis stage) of seed seedlings of weeping birch were studied as marker signs of anthropogenic pollution of territories. Relations between cytogenetic and biochemical characteristics were found. The impact of the environment, caused mainly by heavy metal pollution, on birch trees and their seed progeny, can be defined as hormesis by biochemical and cytogenetic indices. A comprehensive study of cytogenetic and biochemical parameters can allow a quick and adequate evaluation of the seed quality of unknown origin which is especially important for plant industry and forestry as it allows selecting stable planting material and for the collection of material for pharmacognostic purposes in areas with different ecological pressure. Determining cytogenetic indices and the amount of total protein allows forecasting the germination capacities and germination abilities of the seeds of the weeping birch.

The ecological status of the technologically transformed and natural territories of Belarushas been ranked by changing the morphometric and cytogenetic indices of separate vegetative organs (lamina and root) in three model species of phytoindicators. Based on the results of multidimensional scaling (bootstrap (1000)), 3 clusters have been identified: the first combines the territories of large urban cenoses (Gomel+ Minsk), the second includes part of the republic territory most exposed to radiation pollution (Khoyniki + PSRER exclusion zone), and the third acts as a standard of the state of the environment (Berezinsky Biosphere Reserve). The suitability of plants of various taxonomic groups (Betula pendula Roth., Trifolium repens L., Allium cepa L.) as bioindicators for assessing the state of the natural environment has been shown.

Betulin (B) and betulinic acid (BA) are two triterpenoids with a wide range of biological and medicinal activities in different organs of Betula pendula. This research aimed to increase the...

This paper studies variability of pollen grains of the silver birch in relation to the quality of urban environment. The material was collected in 12 sites. A total of 1,190 leaves and 24,000 pollen grains were examined and measured. The pollen fertility varied within 6992%. Statistically significant decrease in fertility was observed in conditions of high-intensity traffic load, in the central area of the city, and where the road surface was in poor condition. Under the same conditions a statistically significant increase in percentage of relatively fertile pollen grains is observed. We found significant correlation between the level of fluctuating asymmetry (FA) and the share of fertile and half-fertile pollen grains. For fertility Spearmans rho was 0,71; and for half-fertility, r = 0,66, p 0,05. A similarly significant correlation (r = 0,7, p 0,05) was found between the diameter of pollen grains and traffic load, which indicates a consistent organism response to environment deterioration. From the above, it follows that for assessment of environmental condition such characteristics of pollen grains as fertility, half-fertility, and pollen grain size can be used.

Distribution, taxonomy, nomenclature and molecular genetic data are presented for two closely related pairs of birch taxa: (1) dark-barked Betula pubescens var. sibakademica (Baran.) Kuzeneva (basionym B. sibakademica Baranov) and white-barked B. pubescens var. pubescens, and (2) dark-barked B. kotulae Zaverucha = B. pendula var. obscura (Kotula ex Fiek) Olšavská (basionym B. obscura Kotula ex Fiek, heterotypic synonym B. kotulae) and white-barked B. pendula, respectively. Using published data and sequences obtained in this study, it was found that, although these pairs can be distinguished not only by morphological characters but also by two diagnostic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the internal transcribed spacers ITS1 and ITS2, no sequence differences within each pair were detected. These results suggest that the colour of the bark cannot be used as a taxonomic trait at the species level, and the dark-barked birches within each pair should not be treated as separate species or varieties, but as forms, respectively. Therefore, we reassessed the taxonomic status of B. sibakademica and B. kotulae using morphological traits and molecular genetic markers and suggest that B. pubescens f. sibakademica (Baranov) Tarieiev comb. nov. and B. pendula f. obscura (Kotula ex Fiek) Tarieiev comb. nov. should be used for them, respectively. Betula pubescens f. sibakademica was described in Ukraine for the first time.

Исследовали параметры листьев в популяциях Betula pendula Roth из Южного Зауралья и Betulaplatyphylla Sukacz. из Южной Сибири и Монголии. Показано, что с усилением аридности климата увеличиваются толщина и плотность листа, что указывает на структурные и функциональные изменения листового аппарата вусловиях водного дефицита. Данные параметры можно считать маркерными признаками, отражающими адаптацию фотосинтетического аппарата берез к изменению климатических условий.

The paper comprises an analysis of As, Cd, and Tl content in two plant species (Agrostis capillaris and Betula pendula) commonly growing in the vicinity of the Miasteczko Śląskie Zinc Works, in the period of 1998–2018. In 2018, the As, Cd, and Tl content (in mg/kg) in the grasses was 1.10–1.68, 3.14–19.05, and 0.53–5.96, respectively, i.e. lower by 50–70%, compared to the year 1998. In birch leaves, the As, Cd, and Tl content (in mg/kg) at the same time point was 0.74–1.54, 4.65–32.44, and 0.80–7.57, respectively, i.e. lower by 10–80%, compared to values found 20 years before. In all grass and birch leaf samples collected in 1998 and 2018, the content of the studied elements exceeded the so-called “natural levels”. The 1998 content of As, Cd, and Tl in the plants was due to the settling of dust containing industrial pollutants in 77–96%. After 20 years, the contribution of this source of pollution was considerably lower, 63–79%. The performed analyses demonstrated the following mean contents of the analyzed elements in dust: 243 mg As/kg, 1113 mg Cd/kg, and 44 mg Tl/kg, which confirms the hypothesis on the major role of dust in the current soil and plant pollution. In all the habitats analyzed, a significant decrease of the transfer factor (TF) was found for As and Cd in 2018, compared to 1998. For Tl, a different observation was made. In three out of four analyzed habitats, TF decreased over the two decades studied, whereas in the remaining habitat, TF was higher in 2018 than in 1998 both for the grasses and for the birch leaves. Over the past 20 years, the most polluted area also changed, from the land located closest to the zinc works, in the direction aligned with the most common winds, to areas subject to the most intense settling of pollutants carried by wind from unsecured heaps and industrial waste storage areas.

Aim. This paper is aimed at studying the relative light conditions (RLC) for lawns in the crown shade of light‐requiring and shade‐tolerant trees from the landscaping sites of Stavropol.Methods. The illuminance incident on the lawn surface was measured using a TKA‐LUX light meter from 7 a.m. to 5 p.m., every two hours.Results. It is shown that lawns under the crowns of light‐requiring tree species (Larix sibirica), received the highest RLC. During three calendar periods (22.05–15.06–18.09.2017, from 7 a.m. to 5 p.m.), its value amounted to 8.2‐9.2% (9.2% – at 1 p.m.); 4.6‐6.8% (6.8%); 7.0‐12.9% (12.9%). The projective cover of the lawns reached 75‐90%. In case of Betula pendula, the RLC values were as follows: 2.6‐3.7% (3.7%); 1.9‐3.2% (3.0%); 3.6‐5.7% (5.6%), with the projective cover amounting to 75‐90%. Under the crowns of shade‐tolerant species, Abies nordmanniana, the RLC values reached 1.0‐1.5% (1.0%), 0.6‐1.5% (0.6%), 0.7‐3.0 (0.7%), with the projective cover of lawns amounting to 10‐25%. For Aesculus hip‐ pocastanum, these values were equal to 0.6‐0.8% (0.6%); 0.6‐0.8% (0.6%); 9.0‐11.5% (11.2%), with dead patches being frequently formed. Projective cover values for shaded lawns correlate with the RLC value (r = 0.89).Conclusions. Under present conditions, ground covers consisting of Vinca minor shrubs and Hedera helix vines can be used in urban greening for intensively shaded sites.

The spectral properties of plant leaves relate to the state of their photosynthetic apparatus and the surrounding environment. An example is the well known photosynthetic downregulation, active on the time scale from minutes to hours, caused by reversible changes in the xanthophyll cycle pigments. These changes affect leaf spectral absorption and are frequently quantified using the photochemical reflectance index (PRI). This index can be used to remotely monitor the photosynthetic status of vegetation, and allows for a global satellite-based measurement of photosynthesis. Such earth observation satellites in near-polar orbits usually cover the same geographical location at the same local solar time at regular intervals. To facilitate the interpretation of these instantaneous remote PRI measurements and upscale them temporally, we measured the daily course of leaf PRI in two evergreen biomes—a European boreal forest and an Amazon rainforest. The daily course of PRI was different for the two locations: At the Amazonian forest, the PRI of Manilkara elata leaves was correlated with the average photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) (R2 = 0.59, p < 0.01) of the 40 minutes preceding the leaf measurement. In the boreal location, the variations in Pinus sylvestris needle PRI were only weakly (R2 = 0.27, p < 0.05) correlated with mean PPFD of the preceding two hours; for Betula pendula, the correlation was insignificant (p > 0.5) regardless of the averaging period. The measured daily PRI curves were specific to species and/or environmental conditions. Hence, for a proper interpretation of satellite-measured instantaneous photosynthesis, the scaling of PRI measurements should be supported with information on its correlation with PPFD.

Artificial limitation of the living space of the population functioning in the conditions of semi-free maintenance of animals certainly causes a threat to the forest stand ecosystem integrity with subsequent processes of their degradation within the sanctuary boundaries. The basis for performing the forest taxation analysis of tree stands in the sanctuaries is the sub-compartment valuation descriptions of forest enterprises of Rivne and Volyn Regional Departments of Forestry and Hunting. There are 24 enclosures with the total area of ​​1524.1 ha in the territory of Western Polissya. The forest fund is found to occupy 1272.7 ha and field land – 251.4 ha respectively. The sanctuaries are characterized by 21 forest types. They are considered to be as follows: 5 in pine forest conditions, 5 in mixed coniferous forest conditions, and 11 in mixed broadleaved forest conditions. The most common forest types in Western Polissya are С4Влч (303.6 ha), В3ДС (245.5 ha) and С3ГДС (159.4 hectares). Mixed stands prevail covering the area of 396.2 ha (35.0 %) with predominance of pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and birch (Betula pendula Roth.). They are represented by 16 types of forest. С3ГДС (188.8 ha), С4Влч (66.9 ha) and В3ДС (60.8 ha) occupy the largest area. Middle-aged stands dominate (174.3 ha) in mixed forest. Their growing stock is 0.70. Site index of tree stands are mainly Іа (61.3 ha), I (168.1 ha), and II (117.7 ha). Pine stands occupy the largest area among pure stands – 359.3 hectares (31.7 %). The area of ​​pure alder and birch stands is respectively 255.7 hectares (22.6 %) and 113.3 ha (10.0 %). Maturing stands dominate among pine forest stands. Their area is 138.6 ha, where there are 57.7 ha of artificial origin stands. Average growing stock is 0.71. The area of ​​the stands of Іа and I site indexes is 258.7 has (72.0 %). Pure alder stands are represented by 4 forest types, where С4Влч (235.6 ha) dominates. Middle-aged stands dominate according to the age structure – 172.0 ha (67.3 %). The growing stock of alder stands is 0.73. Tree stands grow in the Іа – V classes of site index. Middle-aged stands in the sanctuaries generally dominate in the region of research. Their area is 463.0 ha (40.9 %). The stands mostly grow by I (514.9 ha), Іа (167.4 ha), and II (334.0 ha) of site index. Forest taxation indicators of tree stands are to become the key factors in designing sanctuaries that will enable elaborating recommendations on the non-exhausting maintenance of sanctuaries in hunting farms in forests.

Figured wood of Karelian birch (Betula pendula Roth var. carelica (Merckl.) Hamet-Ahti) is highly appraised for its ornamental properties. The reasons for its formation remain largely unclear; judging by available data, we are dealing here with auxin inactivation through its interaction with sugars. The aim of this study has been to reveal the correlations between abnormal wood formation in Karelian birch and auxin conjugation producing IAA-glucose. Karelian birch trees with figured and non-figured wood in the trunk were used. Figured plants had a much higher expression of the gene encoding for the enzyme IAA-glucose synthase, which catalyzes IAA-glucose synthesis. The data obtained suggest that auxin conjugation in Karelian birch via a chain of biochemical reactions may be associated with hexoses produced in the apoplast through sucrose cleavage by cell wall invertase. The activity of the enzyme in figured Karelian birch trees is several times higher than in non-figured plants. Vessel differentiation requires free auxin. We assume that a reduced number of vessels in figured wood may be caused by auxin conjugation in the zone of xylem cell growth and differentiation. Figured wood of Karelian birch was found to have an increased transcript level of the PIN3 gene, which encodes for the auxin efflux carrier protein PIN3 responsible for lateral transport of the hormone. In this regard, PIN3 may generate auxin fluxes with a complex configuration. Microscopic analysis provides evidence that PIN3 overexpression in trunk tissues of Karelian birch is associated with active differentiation of parenchyma cells and disruption of wood structure.

We studied the variability of morphometric parameters of Betula pendula leaf blade in various plantations under the influence of urban technogenic environment in the city of Zaporizhzhya. The data was collected right after the growth of leaf blades had subsided, at the end of July – in early August 2017‑2018. The samples of Betula pendula leaves were collected in the area of green plantations of sanitary protection zones of 7 industrial enterprises of various toxicity classes. The measurement was carried out in such a way that in total 5 parameters were involved (with parameters from 1st to 4th being taken in millimetres, while the 5th parameter was taken in degrees) on the left and right side of the leaf blade. While analyzing the list of morphometric traits, we have used the integral index derived applying the method of V. M. Zakharov (2000). The most sensitive to the influence of urbo-technogenic environment of the Betula pendula leaf blade is the parameter #3 – the distance between the bases of the first and second veins of the second order, which average value is 0.111 cm. Parameter #2, which is the length of the vein of the second order situated second from the base of the leaf, is most resistant to the influence of factors of technogenic pollution (the asymmetry does not exceed 0.030 cm). Based on the calculation of the mean value of the fluctuating asymmetry, we established the dependence between the violation of symmetry levels and the environmental pollution. The lowest value of the asymmetry coefficient (0.040) was detected in plantations in the area belonging to Zaporozhtransformator (ZTR) PJSC. The most extreme technogenic pressure that Betula pendula is exposed to can be found in protective forest plantations located near industrial facilities of Zaporozhogneupor, Zaporizhstal, Zaporizhkoks, Dniprospetsstal, ZTMC and ZALK (the limits of fluctuation of the fluctuating asymmetry index in these areas are from 0.058 to 0.065).

The paper presents the results of the study of seasonal changes in the morphological parameters of leaves of the silver birch (Betula pendula Roth). The investigation was carried out in the plantations within the Ufa industrial center. Permanent sample plots were selected taking into account the level of pollution and were laid in the zone of the direct impact of industrial production (the northern part of Ufa) and in the zone of relative control (the western part of the city, the recreation zone). To characterize the features of birch leaves growth, a correlation analysis was performed, and the depth of correlation between the area and the mass of leaves was estimated. The tightness of correlation in the contaminated area and the correlation in May is categorized as “weak”, in June – as "strong", in July and September – as "moderate". According to the quantitative characteristics of the correlation tightness, in the zone of relative control the correlation refers to the category of “strong”. The values of mass and area of a birch leaf indicate that in the conditions of industrial pollution the uniform development of leaves was observed during the growing season of 2016. However, the correlation analysis allowed us to establish that there was an ambiguous relationship between the mass and the area of the leaf. It can be explained by the adaptive reactions of birch that occur during the seasonal development of leaves.

Despite the differences in ploidy and in the timing of flowering, two species of white birch, Betula pendula and Betula pubescens often form viable hybrids in places of their joint growth. Recognition of such hybrids by their morphological features is very difficult or impossible. On the other hand, it could be assumed that substantial differences can be found in the secondary metabolites whose composition is determined mainly by genetic factors. However, the inheritability of biosynthesis of secondary birch metabolites is unknown. We investigated the bud volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of the artificial hybrids of these birches and compared them with specific metabolites of pure parent species. The bud VOCs were determined by a combination of head-space microextraction with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. As the result, we found that: (a) hybrids clearly show dominant inheritance along the maternal line and (b) the buds of hybrid plants have characteristic features of VOCs composition, which allows for definitive conclusions about hybrid origins in some cases.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the As phytoextraction potential of four tree species: Acer pseudoplatanus L., Betula pendula Roth., Quercus robur L., and Ulmus laevis Pall. in light of their prospective use in the phytoremediation of arsenate [As(V)] contaminated soils. The content of nutritional elements: B, Ca, K, Mg, Na, Si, P, and S was also analyzed. The trees were grown for 1 month in hydroponic cultures (Knop medium) supplemented with As(V), (1 mM). The results showed that the highest As accumulation efficiency was characterized by B. pendula (BCF = 0.87) and Q. robur (BCF = 0.5). Betula pendula accumulated about 80% of As in its roots (TF = 0.22) whereas Q. robur accumulated more than 60% of As in its shoots (TF = 1.60). The other tree species accumulated significantly lower amounts of As, more than 60% of which collected in their shoots. As(V) phytoextraction led to a significantly lower level of P and S in the roots of all tested tree species. Betula pendula seems promising for phytostabilisation and Q. robur for phytoextraction of As(V) from contaminated soils. The obtained results confirm the accumulation and translocation of As(V), as well as the acquisition of nutritional elements by the selected tree species.

In this study we derived allometric functions for estimating the belowground biomass (BGB) of Silver Birch (Betula pendula Roth), Pedunculate Oak (Quercus robur L.), Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.) and Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in Germany. To assess the impact on German greenhouse gas (GHG) reporting, these new functions were further compared with BGB functions currently used in France and Sweden. For developing new BGB functions 48 Silver Birches, 39 Pedunculate and Sessile Oaks and 54 Scots Pines were destructively sampled. The sampled trees spanned a DBH range from 8.2 to 52.9 cm for Silver Birch, from 7.4 to 42.0 cm for Oak and from 7.2 to 53.2 cm for Scots Pine. After fitting the data, the following values of model efficiency were achieved: 0.81 for Silver Birch, 0.98 for Oak and 0.95 for Scots Pine. The model root mean square error varies between 5.2 kg for Oak, 13.7 kg for Scots pine and 26.9 kg for Silver Birch. Comparison with the currently applied BGB functions in the German GHG inventory from France and Sweden showed that the use of these functions results in systematically different estimates for the BGB of Silver Birch and Oak. Thus, our findings indicate that BGB functions recommended for other European countries (in particular France and Sweden) are not appropriate for estimating the BGB for the tree species concerned in Germany. Currently, the derived data-set for BGB of Silver Birch, Oak and Scots Pine is the largest in Germany and the developed functions are thus the best available for estimating national BGB stock and stock change in Germany at the moment.

In many European countries, recent policies and forest management have been striving to restore and increase forest biodiversity. One of the ways to achieve this goal is by increased planting of admixture tree species, such as birch, hornbeam or lime, after clearcutting or in older, otherwise homogenous forest stands. However, because admixture forest tree species present less economical value than trees such as pine or oak, they are object of fewer studies, and in this context their mycorrhizal relations are not fully known. Describing them would further aid the use of such trees in forest management. This study focused on the ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungal communities of two-years-old silver birch (B. pendula L.), European hornbeam (C. betulus L.) and small-leaved lime (T. cordata Mill.) seedlings under bare-root forest nursery conditions. The ECM fungal partners of the studied trees were identified based on the molecular approach, and the uncovered community structure was analyzed in context of the local soil chemical parameters. We found that the ECM fungal communities of admixture tree species in bare-root nurseries are of high diversity, and contain a wide array of fungal species. Our study identified the highest taxa richness (23 taxa) associated with the roots of hornbeams and limes, followed closely (21 taxa) by birch. Surprisingly, ECM fungal communities of lime (family Malvaceae) were more similar to hornbeam and birch (family Betulaceae) than the two were to each other. The lime ECM fungal communities were also the least divergent across the five tested nurseries, showing little response to differences in the soil chemistry. The most abundant and frequent fungi found in the study were Tuber (average relative abundance: 18.9%) and Hebeloma (average relative abundance: 18.4%) species. Some of the fungal taxa we recorded have never before been identified under nursery conditions (e.g., Lactarius pubescens, Leccinum holopus, Pachyphloeus melanoxantha, Russula grata). Pachyphloeus melanoxantha is a rare species in Europe, and this study recorded one of its first records in Poland. Our results present not only a description of ECM associations of tested trees (providing the first ever description of young hornbeam ECM communities), but also may have practical implications both for producing planting stock of these admixture trees, and for the later replanting of those into forest stands.

Stem rot cause significant ecological and economic damage to forests. Affected stands are prone to windbreaks and windfalls. Value of wood and stability of stands are reduced. Despite intensive studies of resistance biochemical aspects to rotting diseases, role of phenolic compounds remains insufficiently clarified. The purpose of research was studying composition of phenolic compounds in birch leaves with a significant level of damage to the diameter of the trunk. Stem rot was determined by taking core from trunk. Biochemical composition of leaves determined by HPLC. There are 64 phenolic compounds was revealed. 24 factions identified, 45.83% of compounds in affected trees, content was increased. Flavonoids are prevail (63.64%). In 45.83% of compounds, content decreased. They had predominance of flavonoids (81.82%). All compounds possess antioxidant activity. They contain phenolglycosides, determining entomoresistance (arbutin, salicin, salidroside). The results showed that with significant infestation with rot, there is an increase in the content of phenolic compounds in the leaves, therefore, the biochemical processes of combating oxidative stress are activated. This is due to violation of physiological and biochemical processes in diseased trees.

The results of studies of the species composition of wood-destroying fungus in the Park of Recreation and Leisure named after Mykhailo Chekman in the city of Khmelnytskyi are presented here. In the Park, 29 species of wood-destroying fungus were found, which are widespread on 14 tree species. The most common types of destroying fungus were: Fomitopsis pinicola, Bjercandera adusta, Bjercandera fumosa, Phellinus igniarius, and Stereum hirsutum. These types of wood-destroying fungus are found on almost all tree species of the park which have been damaged by the fungi. The tree species, which are most susceptible to wood-destroying fungus, are: Betula pendula Roth., Fraxinus excelsior L., Salix alba L., Populus nigra and Quercus robur L. The lowest occurance of wood-destroying fungi was found on вільсі чорній and грабові звичайному. It has been proved that the role of wood-destroying fungus in urban plantations is negative. Most species of wood-destroying fungus cause a variety of rot. Such trees have no external signs of weakening for a long time. It is possible to find affected trees with wood-destroying mushrooms by the presence of fruit bodies. The methods of dealing with wood-destroying fungus are presented here. The main method is conducting periodic forest-pathological surveys to detect the species composition of wood-destroying fungus and the degree of affliction of plantations. In the park, along with the implementation of sanitary measures, the individual protection of trees is important. Methods of protection are; wound healing, wound rubbing after pruning and filling of tree hollows. Protection of trees on the basis of chemical methods should be carried out with single defeat. Measures to regulate recreational loads and prevent mechanical and other tree damage are also important in Chekman Park. The obtained research results broaden the idea of the species diversity of wood-destroying fungi in the park plantations of Khmelnytskyi and can be used in the organization and implementation of forest-pathological monitoring, as well as determining the locations of future sanitary and recreational activities.

We report on the most extensive study to date in Poland concerning the variability in the chemical composition of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) wood depending on the forest habitat type and the location of the forest stand. The research was carried out in 12 forest districts, on two habitat types where silver birch forest stands predominate in respect of coverage area and merchantable volume. Chemical composition analysis was performed on 51 samples from 306 test trees aged approximately 30, 50 and 70 years. In the examined sample material, the sum of the main chemical components for individual locations varied from 89.26 to 91.57%. The content of substances soluble in water and ethanol ranged from 2.30 to 4.03%, and the ash content was measured at between 0.09 and 0.25%. The results showed that the location had a significant influence on the contents of substances soluble in cold water (p = 0.0015), hot water (p = 0.0005), ethanol (p

A complete diallel cross was made among nine Betula pendula trees growing in a natural population and a trial was planted on agricultural soil at one site. This exceptional trial has provided estim...

The essential oil from birch (Betula pendula Roth.) buds was obtained by Clevenger-type hydrodistillation. Its qualitative and quantitative composition was determined by gas chromatography in combination with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and flame ionization detection (GC/FID), respectively. Twenty-seven compounds, mainly sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (78.7%) and oxygenated sesquiterpenes (14.8%), were identified comprising 93.5% of total identified components in the essential oil. The most abundant compounds were germacrene D (21.7%) and -cadinene (17.0%). Antimicrobial activity of isolated essential oil against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as fungus Candida albicans was determined using the disc-diffusion method. The isolated essential oil has shown antimicrobial activity against the following microorganisms: Proteus vulgaris, Bacillus luteus and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antioxidative activity of the essential oil was determined using the DPPH assay, after adding DPPH radical and after 20min, 30min and 60min incubation with radical. Essential oil showed antioxidant activity.

1. Fine root turnover plays a critical role in carbon and nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems. In this study, we focused on the most abundant deciduous species in Nordic countries, silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) and its fine root dynamics, including the amount of litter produced by fine roots as well as by aboveground vegetation. 2. The minirhizotron method was used to quantify fine root longevity of silver birch and understory fine roots and rhizomes in northern Finland. Fine root biomass per basal area and ectomycorrhizal short root numbers per mg were also quantified. The fine root litter production was estimated by fine root biomass and longevity, and then compared with the aboveground litter collected with litter traps. 3. Birch fine root biomass was 1.4-fold higher than that of understory fine roots and rhizomes (234 ± 22, 171 ± 19 g m−2 respectively). Fine root longevity of birch (372 days) was significantly (P

We found that the regulation of apoplastic invertase (ApInv) activity in the cambial growth period in Karelian birch (Betula pendula var. carelica) is provided by the expression of encoding genes. In Karelian birches with normal wood, the content of CWIN1, CWIN1.1, and CWIN4 gene transcripts in xylem is lower than in birches with patterned wood. The regulation of ApInv activity in common silver birch (B. pendula var. pendula) is mainly provided at the posttranslational level by protein inhibitors (cell-wall inhibitor of β-fructosidase, CIF). In the trunk tissues of common silver birch, the expression level of ApInv encoding genes is similar to that of Karelian birch, but the concentration of CIF gene transcripts is increased; high expression rate of the CIF gene is caused by increased sucrose concentration in the apoplast. High activity rate of ApInv in Karelian birch provides high acceptor capacity of the cambial zone; a large amount of formed hexoses is intensely used for the formation of starch, a reserve metabolite. An increase in the wood pattern intensity correlates with the sucrose metabolization rate in the apoplastic pathway. In the trunks of birches with patterned wood, there are only local changes in the ratio of ApInv and sucrose synthase activity rates (ApInv activity higher) in the cambial growth period.

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF FOREST SCIENCE, 2019, No. 4. P. 304-310 EFFECT OF DURATION OF OIL SLUDGE ON VITAL ACTIVITY OF SIVER BIRCH (BETULA PENDULA ROTH.) STUDIED BY ELECTRICAL METHOD Yu. A. Kurilo, A. I. Grogor’ev Omsk State Pedagogical Universtity Tukhachevskogo WF 14, 644099 Omsk, Russia E-mail: curilo.yu@yandex.ru Received 17 February 2018 Study of electric resistivity (impedance) of wooden plants is an adequate method of assessment of health of forest ecosystems under impact of unfavorable factors such as oil sludge. Links between morphological traits (diameter and height of trunks) and electric resistivity were studied over a period under an effect of single episode of oil sludge pollution. Seasonal variations of electric resistivity level of sliver birch were considered. It represented a sinusoid with the peak during autumn and winter, decrease during wakening of trees, insignificant increase in summer and gradual growth in September during leaf fall when trees prepare to winter. Decomposition of oil sludge in soil changed electric resistivity of precambial tissues compared to control trees having stable and significantly lower values. This change caused suppression of metabolic processes in organisms of wooden plants. Electric resistivity of precambial tissues of birch trunk indicated the level of root and leaves connection of vital activity. Electrical method was effective biophysical indicator in assessment of metabolic processes of wooden plants. Keywords: silver birch, precambial tissues, electric resistivity, electrical methods, oil sludge pollution. DOI: 10.1134/S002411481904003X REFERENCES Davies E., New functions for electrical signals in plants, New Phytologist , 2004, Vol. 161, pp. 607-610. Demidchik V., Maathuis F.J.M., Physiological roles of nonselective cation channels in plants: From salt stress to signalling and development, New Phytologist , 2007, Vol. 175, pp. 387-404. 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Summary Insect herbivore damage and abundance are often reduced in diverse plant stands. However, few studies have explored whether this phenomenon is a result of plant diversity effects on host plant traits.We explored indirect effects of tree species diversity on herbivory via changes in leaf traits in a long‐term forest diversity experiment in Finland. We measured 16 leaf traits and leaf damage by four insect guilds (chewers, gall formers, leaf miners and rollers) on silver birch (Betula pendula) trees growing in one‐, two‐, three‐ and five‐species mixtures.A decline in the frequency of birch in mixed stands resulted in reduced leaf area. This, in turn, mediated the reduction in chewing damage in mixed stands. In contrast, associational resistance of birch to leaf miners was not trait‐mediated but driven directly by concurrent declines in birch frequency as tree species richness increased.Our results show that leaf trait variation across the diversity gradient might promote associational resistance, but these patterns are driven by an increase in the relative abundance of heterospecifics rather than by tree species richness per se. Therefore, accounting for concurrent changes in stand structure and key foliar traits is important for the interpretation of plant diversity effects and predictions of associational patterns.

The spectral properties of plant leaves relate to the state of their photosynthetic apparatus and the surrounding environment. An example is the well known photosynthetic downregulation, active on the time scale from minutes to hours, caused by reversible changes in the xanthophyll cycle pigments. These changes affect leaf spectral absorption and are frequently quantified using the photochemical reflectance index (PRI). This index can be used to remotely monitor the photosynthetic status of vegetation, and allows for a global satellite-based measurement of photosynthesis. Such earth observation satellites in near-polar orbits usually cover the same geographical location at the same local solar time at regular intervals. To facilitate the interpretation of these instantaneous remote PRI measurements and upscale them temporally, we measured the daily course of leaf PRI in two evergreen biomes-a European boreal forest and an Amazon rainforest. The daily course of PRI was different for the two locations: At the Amazonian forest, the PRI of Manilkara elata leaves was correlated with the average photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) (R2 = 0.59, p 2 = 0.27, p 0.5) regardless of the averaging period. The measured daily PRI curves were specificto species and/or environmental conditions. Hence, for a proper interpretation of satellite-measured instantaneous photosynthesis, the scaling of PRI measurements should be supported with information on its correlation with PPFD. Index Terms-Amazon rainforest, Betula

During an expedition in 2018 to Teletskoye Lake, Altaiskiy Nature Reserve and Gorno-Altaysk area (Altay Republic), 49 Cortinarius species were collected and documented, including ITS DNA sequencing of 32 samples. A total of 29 telamonioid species, 3 dermocyboid species, 6 anomaloid species, 6 phlegmacioid species, 3 myxacioid species and 2 species from other groups were found, of which 32 species are new to Altay and 14 species new to Russia. The Cortinarius funga of the Pinus – Betula – Abies forests of Altay is apparently very similar to that of boreal North Europe, and indicates a remarkable uniformity of the taiga from Scandinavia to western Siberia, with respect to fungal communities. Cortinarius privignipallens coll., C. subheterocyclus, C. nodosisporus appeared to be rare Eurasian species. A few undescribed species were also recorded, but since belonging to species complexes, they need further studies. Most of Cortinarius species (33) were found in Pinus sylvestris (Betula) mossy delta forests on sand/pebbles, whereas 9 species were found in the Pinus sibirica – Abies sibirica – Betula mixed tall herb slope forests. A few species were also found in the Alnus viridis subsp. fructicosa – Salix viminalis (Betula) riparian delta forest (3 taxa). Altogether 13 species were recorded in the calciphilous semi-open, partly grazed Betula pendula woodland around Gorno-Altaysk.

Inonotus obliquus grows in the Northern Hemisphere on some living broadleaved tree species as a pathogen, causing stem rot. In Estonia, the fungus is well known in the Betula species but can also be found on Alnus. Sterile conks of I. obliquus contain different bioactive compounds, but the quantitative and comparative research of these compounds in conks on different host species is limited. In the current work, I. obliquus was isolated and, evidently, determined from Alnus incana (L.) Moench., Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn., and Betula pendula Roth, and the content of bioactive compounds in conks on these hosts were analysed. All the analysed conks sampled from A. incana and B. pendula contained betulin that varied from 111 to 159 µg/g. A significantly (p < 0.05) higher betulinic acid content was found in conks sampled from A. incana when compared with B. pendula: 474–635 and 20–132 µg/g, respectively. However, the conks from Betula were richer in total polyphenols, flavonols, and glucans. The content of inotodiol was quite similar in the conks from A. incana (7455–8961 µg/g) and B. pendula (7881–9057 µg/g). Also, no significant differences in the lanosterol content were found between the samples from these two tree species. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first investigation of the chemical composition of I. obliquus parasitizing on Alnus. The results demonstrate that the bioactive compounds are promising in conks of I. obliquus growing not only on Betula but also on the Alnus species. It supports the opportunity to cultivate I. obliquus, also on the Alnus species, thus increasing the economic value of growing this tree species in forestry.