Search

Sequencing in adventure education involves putting activities in an order appropriate to the needs of the group. Contrary to the common assumption that each adventure sequence is unique, a review of literature concerning five sequencing models reveals a certain universality. These models present sequences that move through four phases: group formation, group challenge, group support, and group achievement. These phases are compared to four stages of group development found in a meta-analysis of 50 studies of groups. These stages are termed: forming, storming, norming, and performing. Other research clearly indicates that various sequences have differing effects on the development of teamwork and on the development of group cohesion. It is asserted that debates over the uniqueness versus universality of sequencing and over the benefits of flexibility versus fixed planning create a false dichotomy. A planning continuum is suggested that allows for three distinct levels of sequences. At the flexible end of the continuum, the "micro-sequence" or individual adventure activity could be modified at any time in response to group needs. At the fixed-planning end of the continuum, the "macro-sequence" would plan the order of activity categories that catalyze the social-maturation phases of the group. In the middle of the continuum, the "meso-sequence" would involve choosing activities appropriate to each group phase. (Contains 26 references and 4 tables.) (SV)

Out Doors Inc. is a community-managed mental health organization in Victoria (Australia) that provides psychosocial rehabilitation to adults with mental health needs through outdoor adventure and other recreation experiences. This paper focuses on Out Door Inc.'s Going Places Program. The program, which ranges from 1 day to 4 months, is based on the belief that play, recreation, and outdoor adventure help to integrate mind, emotions, and body and are valuable parts of a holistic approach to personal development and mental health. Participants apply on their own and are not "referred." The 4-month program is a closed group of 12 men and women aged 18 and upwards, broadly fitting the category of being disabled by mental illness. Six levels of increasing challenge accommodate people's generally low levels of fitness and confidence. The focus is on abilities rather than disabilities, with a heavy reliance on the experiential learning model. Participants aim to be more self-sufficient, and the transfer of learning to their daily lives is an important program theme. Going Places makes it clear that it is not part of the medical system; it does not provide "treatment" or "therapy." This helps to ensure psychological safety, since many clients associate the word therapy with compulsory treatment, loss of personal dignity, and the therapist's exertion of power over them. Going Places shares common ground with those who do "adventure therapy" but its position acknowledges one of the main demands of people with mental health needs: that professionals work together to provide continuity of service and choices in a way that respects people as the experts in their own lives. (TD)

The New Zealand Department of Corrections commissioned an outcome evaluation of an outdoor adventure challenge program (OACP) on 84 participating inmates at Rolleston Prison. The program consisted of 2 weeks of fitness training, skill development, and challenge experiences, followed by a 5-day wilderness expedition. Outcome was measured in three ways: reconviction statistics, content analysis of qualitative data, and a true experimental design involving various psychometric measures of attitudinal change. Reconviction data indicated consistently positive though nonsignificant trends in favor of the OACP participants over matched controls. The lack of statistical significance may be due to the relatively low sample sizes, as well as large variability in dependent measures. The qualitative inquiry revealed a variety of perceived positive impacts from participation. Results from psychometric evaluation showed significant improvement in group cohesion, trust, self-efficacy and well-being, and approached significance on motivation to change for the OACP group, whereas no significant improvements were found in the control group. The results provide some support for the use of OACP as a rehabilitative intervention with offenders, as well as contributing to the goal of secure and humane containment. The data also validate the use of OACP as an adjunct to other correctional programs, helping to create the conditions for effective facilitation of other correctional interventions. Contains 15 references. (Author/TD)

This paper provides background information about the Project Hahn adventure-based program and its ongoing involvement with the Port Arthur Recovery Group to assist 42 adolescents directly affected by the murders of 36 people by a lone gunman in Tasmania in 1996. Case studies relate personal, social, and community issues faced by these adolescents, as well as post-course challenges as they attempted to implement personal changes within their community. The philosophy and practices of the Project Hahn therapy program are given: work with at-risk and socioeconomically disadvantaged youth, pre-course agreement among all participants, promotion of positive peer dynamics, instructional use of risk-recreation activities, freedom of task choice, peer and leader support, followup with participants, and cultivation of moral growth through small-group peer interaction. One case study documents how participation by a 15-year-old student in adventure activities helped her to reevaluate her experiences with the Port Arthur shooting and redefine personal issues of trust, vulnerability, and protective and defensive behaviors. Project Hahn will use planned intervention throughout each wilderness challenge course to experiment with a range of new ideas and behaviors; confront salient and pressing issues; and provide time and opportunity within a supportive and safe environment for adolescents identified by the Port Arthur Recovery Group to express fears, pain, and the traumatic impact of the shooting tragedy. (SAS)

This paper describes the development of an outdoor education camp that assists young people in recognizing new responsibilities and celebrating transition into young adulthood. Using the concept of initiation, the camp marked the beginning of a process which involved adolescents in developing an identity as young adults, increasing personal responsibility, and strengthening personal and group support networks. Students entering upper secondary school participated in the "rites of passage," an initiation process which took place during a 5-day camping trip on the southwest coast of Australia. Key components were based on traditional practices and included the role of elders as guides and mentors, the symbolic journey, physical and psychological challenges, the creation of a vision of self and place, responsibility for self and others, support through networks, reintegration into the school community, and the sharing of experiences through school publications. The outdoor education initiation process could be applied to other settings, including work with troubled youth. (SAS)

This paper explores different responses to "religious" questions raised within adventure therapy programs. Religious education contributes to adventure therapy by enabling an adequate handling of the issues raised within participants' consciousness by adventure experiences. The belief issues raised within adventure therapy can be divided into three categories of relationships: with self, with others, and with the natural world. The focus for examining these relationships can also be divided into three: clarification of the student's own beliefs, beliefs of the life-world or dominant group, and belief systems found within traditional religions. Examples are given of foci of attention and questions related to the types of relationships arising within the adventure education context. The outdoor leader or therapist may respond to religious questions in various ways: suppression of questioning, referral to other authorities, cooperation, or a holistic approach to adventure experience challenges and religious questioning. This latter approach puts the experience in a broader perspective, allows the group leader or therapist to deal with issues as they arise, and promotes holistic student development. (SAS)

This paper briefly describes development of an Australian wilderness program for at-risk and problem students and outlines the "wilderness enhanced" model on which it is based. In the late 1980s, the New South Wales Department of School Education developed a wilderness intervention for adolescents with a history of school behavior problems. A 6-day pilot program was deemed a success based on informal observations and content analysis of pre- and post-program evaluative discussions with participants. Subsequently, the South Coast Wilderness Program was born, and the wilderness enhanced model was developed as the theoretical basis for using a wilderness experience as a catalyst for attitude and behavior change in adolescents. The model is based on three key concepts: disequilibrium and tension resulting in a change in perception, metaphors to explore new meanings, and debriefing or processing the experience. Implementation depends on the leader's interactional style, which focuses participants on finding questions, experiencing disequilibrium and the metaphor, and processing the experience. To this end, the leader uses "nondirect intervention"--feedback that accentuates tension as participants face the inevitability of taking action. Strategic nondirect intervention aids in the management of group dynamics, empowers participants, and creates the freedom for constructive failure. Consistent and informed feedback during long-term followup further refines and extends the lessons learned in the wilderness. Various evaluations have provided quantitative and qualitative evidence of program success. (Contains 16 references.) (SV)

This paper presents a model for implementation of behavior therapies in adventure programs that use Group Adventure Initiative Tasks (GAITs) to promote personal development. Behavior therapies include various techniques and processes based in learning and pedagogical theory and used to promote changes in behavioral responses to environmental situations. In many cases, adventure programs aid the client's experiential and subjective process of self-exploration and development. Since many adventure activities grew out of the fields of outdoor pursuits and outdoor physical education, a conceptual framework for motor skill acquisition may be borrowed and applied to the learning of new behavioral skills. Fitts and Posner's model of stages of motor development illustrates a continuum of skill acquisition from beginner to expert. Characteristics of learner performance and appropriate learning strategies are described for the beginning "cognitive" phase, the intermediate "associative" phase, and the mastery "autonomous" phase. An example illustrates this model's traditional application with regard to motor skill development in kayaking. The model is then applied to development of behavioral skills during GAITs. During an initiative such as "spider's web," each participant in the group progresses toward an individual behavioral objective, supported by encouragement, feedback, and guidance from other group members. GAITs and "adventure growth groups" allow the learner to practice new behavioral skills in a safe and nurturing environment constructed to allow a sequential progression of challenge and mastery. (SV)

Effective group leadership is not entirely about "good" or "bad" approaches, but rather the ability to choose an appropriate style for a particular situation. This paper examines three paradigms, or world views, that can influence the approach of a leader (facilitator, therapist, teacher) of adventure groups and gives examples of how elements of adventure-based counseling and therapy programs might be influenced by each paradigm. Typical ways of thinking and values are outlined for each of three social paradigms, or perspectives on the world. Positivism embraces linear cause and effect thinking, abstractions, generalized models, and expert solutions. Interpretivism emphasizes the need to understand meaning ascribed to phenomena by others and sees reality as dependent on social interaction and negotiation. The critical perspective holds that conflict is inevitable within social systems because power is unequally distributed. The potential effects of each paradigm on program elements are described and illustrated with regard to the needs of individual participants, group dynamics, the role of the leader, and group status in relation to contextual requirements. Flexibility and the ability to empathize with clients are key features of effective leadership in the adventure therapy field. Methodological diversity is desirable, and working from one world view should not exclude the understanding and use of another. (Contains 12 references.) (SV)

This paper outlines a model for assessing and managing psychological depth in outdoor and experiential group work, and presents two case studies of the complexity of such management in real life. The model contains eight levels of emotional risk and presents four criteria for assessing the level to which a particular event or discussion may lead the group. These criteria are the speaker's involvement in what is being said, who else is involved in what the speaker is saying, to whom would the speaker normally disclose what is being discussed, and the potential emotional arousal in what the speaker is saying. The first case occurred during a year-long adventure leadership program for teachers in New Zealand. One participant accused another of stealing and using her credit card. It was revealed that the accused was reaching an acute stage of closet bulimia and was highly distressed with guilt about the theft and shame about the bulimia. In the second case, teenagers were taking part in a month-long sea kayaking course, and a high level of interpersonal trust and emotional safety developed in the group. A 15-year-old female participant disclosed to a group leader that she had been sexually abused by her brother for years. Discussion of the two cases focuses on reactions of the leaders and the groups, ethical questions, useful interventions for managing emotional risk, and the vulnerability of both participants and leaders. (SV)

This paper calls attention to parallels in the literature of adventure education and that of Gestalt therapy, demonstrating that both are rooted in an experiential tradition. The philosophies of adventure or experiential education and Gestalt therapy have the following areas in common: (1) emphasis on personal growth and the development of present potentials; (2) promoting growth through creation of disequilibrium and tension; (3) "challenge" in adventure education versus the "creative experiment" in Gestalt; (4) the impact on the learning or therapeutic process by experiences "at the edge"; (5) characteristics of process and flow (nonpredictability of experience, need for spontaneity and flexibility); (6) focus on the present and concrete examples; (7) holistic approach to learning or therapy; (8) Gestalt belief in self-organizing systems versus the educational concept of constructivism; (9) transparent goals and limits; (10) focus on internal control, self-evaluation, and self-responsibility; and (11) confrontational approach to therapy or experiential group work. Gestalt concepts may inspire the theory and practice of adventure education by making practitioners more aware of what they are doing, and may be even more valuable for the new field of adventure therapy. (Contains 42 references.) (SV)

This paper describes the development of an adventure therapy qualification, the Certificate in Social Work (Activity Based), at Waiariki Polytechnic, New Zealand. New Zealand has an extensive range of outdoor opportunities, and a large percentage of the population is involved in outdoor activities. Although many therapeutic programs involve young people in the outdoors, few programs have both skilled outdoor instructors and skilled therapists. The Certificate aims to give social work students a basic understanding of adventure therapy. Students who pursue further training will then become either social workers who refer clients to adventure programs or facilitators within such programs. Either way, they will have knowledge about the effective use of the outdoors for at-risk young people in New Zealand. The 1-year curriculum contains 8 required training modules and 12 optional modules, of which the student chooses 5. Since the indigenous Maori people are overrepresented in criminal convictions, poor health status, and welfare involvement, an important element of the program is its emphasis on biculturalism. Maori cultural values and customs are taught and supported in the classroom. In addition, the adventure approach connects well with Maori traditional ways of working and learning. Examples are given of adventure activities related to Maori culture and history. (Contains 11 references.) (SV)

This paper introduces the notion of a spiritual component of adventure, with reference to the potential role of adventure within the peace and reconciliation process in Northern Ireland. Influenced by tradition and culture, past constructions of adventure have often associated it with educational benefits and personal development of specific virtues. A deconstruction of adventure focuses on whether adventure furthers the understanding of an individual's experience, or whether, through its location or language, creates a form of paralysis, such as lack of engagement or focus on self-gratification. A new construction of adventure is proposed that requires a radical rethinking: accepting that cultural traditions and desires influence much of adventure, and that adventure offers greater opportunities for holistic than individual development. Adventurous encounters may help us to see the intimate connections between ourselves and the external world and to interact with our "superconsciousness" or spiritual self. The stages of spiritual realization mirror some reactions that people display while experiencing adventure. Reconciliation is a process concerned with identifying the history of broken communities and locating the nature of their disconnection. As dynamic states, reconciliation and peace require the development of skills to communicate and accept alternate perspectives. Adventure assists reconciliation through shared spiritual experience, recognition of our interdependence, and fostering of sense of community. The use of adventure experiences in Corrymeela Community in Northern Ireland is briefly described. (Contains 48 references.) (SV)

Many outdoor educators and adventure therapists share the belief that adventure experiences improve participant self-esteem. Recently, researchers have begun to question this widespread belief, suggesting that a mismatch between the level of physical or psychological risk and the level of client readiness may produce negative outcomes. A study of 61 college students in South Australia examined the effects on self-esteem of participation in an adventure learning course based on Group Adventure Initiative Tasks (GAITS). The experimental group participated in a 15-week college course on group dynamics incorporating GAITS, a series of group adventure tasks such as "spider's web" that require minimal equipment and no specialized skills from participants. Each 2-hour task was followed by a debriefing that explored the processes used to complete the task and participant behaviors within the task. A control group studied group dynamics in a lecture/tutorial format. Pretests and posttests with the Coppersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) found no significant change in self-esteem in either group. Experimental participants were categorized as very low, low, moderate, or high self-esteem according to their pretest SEI scores. At posttest, self-esteem was unchanged in the very low group, increased in the low and moderate groups, and decreased in the high group. Subgroup behaviors and participant perceptions of course effects on their own self-esteem are discussed. (Contains 17 references.) (SV)

Fourteen wilderness and adventure therapy programs in England, Scotland, the United States, and New Zealand were studied to explore critical issues of practice. In view of differences in terminology among countries, various terms and assumptions are defined at length: adventure therapy; wilderness therapy; wilderness-adventure therapy; the continuum of adventure-based practice in terms of "depth" (encompassing recreation, enrichment, and therapy); and unimodal therapy versus multimodal therapy versus adjunctive enrichment. Most programs investigated were multimodal, typically combining wilderness and adventure therapy with parent or family therapy or other group therapies. Unimodal programs tended to be longer-term camping programs. Across countries, different historical, cultural, and social influences have lead to different values and attitudes among adolescent clients, particularly in relation to therapist authority and client autonomy, individualism, and group affiliation. These differences have significantly influenced therapeutic approaches and therapist expectations. Key findings and conclusions relate to trends in the development of the adventure therapy field, the relative importance of program design versus practitioner competencies, client factors associated with better outcomes, holism versus reductionism in therapeutic approach, client rights and ethical issues, consumer perspectives, and gender and power issues. Key elements for best practice are outlined. (Contains 19 references. Appendix outlines program characteristics.) (SV)

This paper reviews the literature associated with outdoor leadership and describes ongoing research about outdoor program directors' hiring preferences when filling outdoor leadership positions. Nineteen articles published in the Journal of Experiential Education, 1983-1996, as well as several book collections of leadership articles, discuss skills and attributes that are requirements for effective outdoor leadership, point out that leadership skills are on a continuum from novice to skilled professional, offer leadership curricula, review research on outdoor leadership, and examine the controversy surrounding the topic of leader certification. The 10 top leadership competencies are listed for each of 6 research projects conducted during 1981-1986. A survey conducted in 1983 revealed a need to examine what is valued or undervalued in the hiring of outdoor leaders. In contrast to previous research that relied on survey questionnaires, this ongoing research project created a forced-choice situation in which outdoor program directors evaluated the strengths and weaknesses of two hypothetical applicants with different backgrounds and qualifications. The directors then indicated whether they would consider hiring either applicant for a position leading groups of adolescents on week-long trips. Contains 15 references. (SV)

In April 1996 survey examined issues that many educators face when facilitating outdoor adventure programs that include persons with disabilities. The survey was returned by 176 of the 487 program directors listed in the 1992 Directory of Experiential Therapy and Adventure-Based Counseling Programs. The great majority of respondents were persons of White, European descent without disabilities. A similar survey was distributed to a staff member randomly selected by each director. Major findings from directors' responses were: 1) programs were accessible and staff attitudes were generally positive toward persons with disabilities; 2) program accommodations for persons with emotional disabilities were easier to implement than those for physical or cognitive impairments; and 3) staff training and consultation on disability issues could be improved. Staff members' responses were generally consistent with directors' assessments. However, staff members expressed some unique preferences with regard to specific disability groups and specific concerns as to staff competencies in meeting the needs of persons with disabilities. Implications for professional practice are discussed. Contains 15 references. (Author/TD)

Creating a nonthreatening atmosphere, drawing out introverted participants, and relating the lessons of programmed activities to everyday life are a few of the challenges of quality processing (debriefing). At times, alternative methods of processing open doors when straightforward questioning does not. In some instances, alternative methods serve a group's needs better than traditional processing. Alternative techniques are usually less complicated, making them useful both to novice facilitators intimidated by processing and to experienced facilitators in new complex situations. Chiji Processing Cards is a new tool to help facilitators conduct processing sessions while minimally manipulating discussion. Initially tested on ropes courses and wilderness trips, the final product is now being used in adventure programs, summer camps, school and university courses, hospital psychiatric and rehabilitation services, and corporate leadership seminars. Consisting of 48 pictures (e.g., lighthouse, sunrise, turtle), the cards are tangible images upon which participants in an experiential education activity can formulate their feelings and opinions. This article explains Chiji Processing Cards, their basic use, and their strengths and limitations; discusses the education theory behind the cards, clarifying their place in the spectrum of alternative processing methods as a form of nondirective facilitated processing; and describes modifications of their use to specific circumstances. (Author/TSP)

At California State University, Fresno, all incoming students take a full-semester, three-unit course that includes topics on academic preparation but also focuses on issues and topics commonly associated with experiential and adventure education. These areas include communication, listening, teamwork, and problem-solving skills. Recognizing the applicability of experiential education to reinforce such skills, a pilot program was undertaken using the campus ropes course. Since college represents an ideal rite of passage for many students, it seemed appropriate to borrow from Joseph Campbell's monomyth, a hero's journey. The program guides students through the ropes course along the steps described in Campbell's "Hero with a Thousand Faces." Myths are an effective means of facilitating educational experiences because they are remembered easily, are open to interpretation, and engage participants in the same manner as an initiative activity might. The stages of the hero's journey are the separation or departure, the trials and victories of initiation, and the return and reintegration with society. These stages are reconceptualized in terms of the college student's experience. Program activities related to each of the stages are described, and 13 questions for reflection are listed. (SV)

Experiments in using outdoor education to affect juvenile development and deter crime abound. Most of these outdoor adventure programs use a setting of developed challenges and perceived risk situations in order to create a life-changing experience. However, these "adventures" remain contrived events and require significant interpretive skills to connect with reality. In contrast, the Apache Rescue Team provides a framework for success in situations of real-life significance. The team is an experiential education program that trains at-risk and probationary youth to respond to technical and medical search and rescue (SAR) situations. Team members, aged 12 and up, are trained in basic first aid, survival, and technical rope rescue techniques. As experience allows, members complete emergency medical technician, advanced technical rescue, and command training as well. The local school allows participants to make up academic work missed because of rescues, and the program provides after-school tutoring. The team makes itself available to all primary agencies organizing SAR responses that the team could respond to. High-profile activity in National Parks boosts participant self-esteem and increases awareness of occupational opportunities. This approach breaks new ground in long-term youth treatment and educational opportunities by challenging professional stereotypes. The team has met with success both in its goals for juvenile crime prevention and in providing first-class search and rescue services. (Author/SV)

This paper describes a longitudinal study of a residential outdoor education school program in Australia. Specifically, the research tracked 409 ninth-grade students for up to 24 months to determine the impact on boys and girls of an extended-stay outdoor education program. The program is located at Timbertop, a coeducational school in a wilderness setting that serves the entire Year 9 student population (average age 14-15) of Geelong, Victoria, Australia. While totally immersed in an isolated spartan setting, the students engage in outdoor education while simultaneously maintaining a normal Year 9 academic curriculum. Students are assigned to self-contained living quarters of 15-16 students, are totally responsible for domestic chores and maintenance, and are denied access to telephones and television. Parents are permitted to visit every 10 weeks. The research project administered various questionnaires and interviews to students, parents, and teachers before, during, and after program attendance and at 12-month followup. These measures examined autonomy, interpersonal relationships, social responsibility, health and physical aptitude, environmental sensitivity, academic and cultural achievement, appropriateness of curriculum, teaching quality, and school spirit. Timbertop provides a unique comparison of male and female students since the curriculum is presented in a gender-neutral fashion. Evidence suggests that girls were successful and were more positive than boys toward social and personal dimensions of the experience. Contains 34 references. Research results are not included. (SV)

The use of adventure programming with families has increased tremendously during the past 10 years. Like traditional adventure activities, adventure interventions with families have been well received for their capacity to fully engage participants in dynamic interactions that create therapeutic movement. These activities are especially powerful as assessment tools as they invite families to enact their behavior patterns and family structure. In 1991, a survey of 44 U.S. family adventure programs identified 4 categories of intervention: recreation, enrichment, adjunctive therapy, and primary therapy. The recreation format is typically a one-shot program in which families participate together in adventure activities and leave the event with a "good" feeling. The enrichment format provides adventure activities that are topic-focused and build specific skills such as communication or trust. An enrichment program may run over several weeks to allow for integration of material learned in previous sessions. The adjunctive therapy format includes family adventure experiences used in conjunction with a primary treatment approach. Program goals address family systems issues. Often families participate in such an intervention because they have a family member in treatment. The primary therapy format uses adventure activities as the primary change agent, and activities are prescriptively tailored to address a specific family's problem. Criteria are listed for defining a primary adventure family therapy program. The importance of distinguishing among formats to provide appropriate programming is emphasized. Contains 12 references. (SV)

This paper describes a risk-protection perspective on adolescent problem behavior and mental health and its implications for experiential and adventure educators. Empirically, multiple biological, psychological, and social factors in the individual, family, and environment are predictive of various adolescent antisocial behaviors such as delinquency, violence, substance abuse, and school dropout. Behavioral involvement increases with greater number of risks present, and most problem behaviors share common risks. Although not all children and adolescents exposed to risks engage in problem behavior, protective factors moderate or mediate exposure to risks, protecting individuals by reducing their negative effects or by altering the individual's reaction to them. The Social Development Model hypothesizes that children and youth learn prosocial and antisocial behaviors through an iterative socialization process involving family, school, community, religious organizations, and peers, and that youth who are bonded to a social group are unlikely to risk rejection by violating behavioral standards. With regard to experiential education and adventure therapy, programs must be designed to address specific risks associated with targeted behavioral problems. Additionally, the Social Development Model directs attention to the types of opportunities provided to clients and to the social networks in which they are provided. Includes a chart of adolescent problem behaviors and their associated risk factors. Contains 12 references. (SV)

The Outdoor Pursuit Center at Miami University, Ohio, has provided an outdoor orientation experience for incoming first-year students since 1995. The experience provides an environment that is effective in easing the transition into higher education settings. Student trip coordinators, student facilitators, faculty, and professional staff use situational leadership models to develop an atmosphere that addresses anxieties, excitement, and a sense of belonging. Student challenges include environmental physical situations, mental problem solving, group dynamics, and cognitive skill utilization. A supportive environment is provided through staff efforts, daily event processing, shared responsibilities, and safety precautions. The framework of the program consists of situating the learning experience, validating student concerns, and mutually constructing meaning. Pre- and post-activity debriefings, coupled with daily reviews and processing initiatives, thoroughly investigate student feelings and apprehensions about participating in adventure activities and help to transfer participant outcomes and insights to academic life. The most effective tools in the program for summative, qualitative, and quantitative evaluations of the transition experience are group journals and focus groups. Lessons learned in formulating and implementing the program relate to developing collaborative goals, designating responsibility, determining resources, determining type of trip, and communicating with students. (SAS)

To ensure that the rapidly growing climbing gym industry maintains the excellent safety record established so far, the Climbing Gym Association (CGA) has developed the Peer Review and Accreditation Program, a process of review between qualified and experienced CGA reviewers and a climbing facility operator to assess the facility's risk management and operational practices. The CGA has published a list of accepted industry practices (AIP's), which have been approved by the membership and are continually updated. Standards will be further developed by the Peer Review and Accreditation Program. This paper presents observations on procedures and practices drawn from the accreditation manual: control of access; climber testing; monitoring by staff; staffing; management systems; insurance; equipment and maintenance; walls, anchors, and landing surfaces; operations manual; program activities and safety; emergency procedures; and outdoor programs. In discussing staffing concerns, it is noted that a strong tradition of mentoring and apprenticeship, coupled with very low turnover, is an important factor in the exemplary safety record established by U.S. climbing schools and guide services. University climbing programs are also challenged by the dual goals of providing adventure recreation and education with maximum safety and developing leadership skills amongst student staff. The CGA is a useful organization for university climbing programs to join because the process of an accreditation review and the maintenance of an accredited status help maintain continuity of staff professionalism and risk management practices. (Includes the Climbing Gym Association's mission statement and eight accepted industry practices.) (TD)

A survey of 652 adventure recreation agencies in higher education settings examined the use of risk management practices and the relationships between agency characteristics and risk management techniques. The survey contained 27 Likert Scale questions divided into four categories (agency guidance, staff development, participant education, and written documentation); 11 check lists about agency policies and procedures; and 9 questions on demographics (agency characteristics, environment, and staffing). Results show that over 84 percent of the agencies had risk management policies, but only 66.9 percent had ways of distributing the policies to staff, and only about 66 percent had their policies approved by the institution that would have to defend the agency in court. Over 73 percent of the agencies had risk management procedures, but only 65 percent had ways of distributing them to staff. Agencies that used incident/accident reports outnumbered those that used medical history forms by 17.9 percentage points. Agencies that systematically included risk management into conducting an activity outnumbered those that similarly included risk management into evaluating an activity by 10.3 percentage points. Agency housing, institutional enrollment, number of full-time employees, number of part-time employees, and geographic region had no effect on any of the categories. The type of institution had some effect on development of agency staff and a definite effect on participant education, and institutional funding had some effect on the use of written documentation. Survey results are shown by data tables and graphs. (TD)

The experiences found in adventure programs often parallel the archetypes depicted in mythological quests. Drawing on the work of Joseph Campbell, the stages and trials of adventure participants are compared to similar rites of passage and epic adventures experienced by heroes and heroines in epic literature and mythology. The basic pattern of separation, time of trials, and return to community in heroic adventures is reinterpreted in terms of the adventure program as leaving a safe place (home, school, community) to face strange trials (weather, getting lost, group conflicts, anaphylactic shock) and returning home with a sense of personal growth (maturity and confidence). The role of the outdoor leader is similar to the guide in epic adventures who shows the way; gives instruction, tools, and encouragement; and allows the hero to accomplish his goals by himself. Activities may be framed in this context by using rituals, sharing stories and experiences, recognizing accomplishments and achievements, saying farewell to other participants, recognizing the transition, and using tokens. However, there are certain difficulties and even dangers in considering expeditions as mythical quests or rites of passage. Adventure programs should not go overboard and emulate the spiritual references and rituals of other cultures that have been in existence for generations, or claim that they can enact a rite of passage. (SAS)

A female trip leader in the University of Florida's Travel and Recreation Program observed that women and men approached outdoor experiences differently, and suggested a women-only program. From this came the Women in the Wilderness program, a women-only outdoor education program designed to empower women through participation in adventure activities and group discussion. The initial proposal was denied based on the possibility of discrimination charges, but clarification of the program's objectives, involvement of other campus organizations dedicated to supporting women, and availability of counterpart trips to all students convinced the administration to allow the program. The format is a one-semester extended "conference" set in the outdoors with each of three sessions having a theme related to a women's issue and to the outdoor trip and adventure activity scheduled for the session. An informal dinner early in the semester provided a forum for discussing expectations and introducing participants to each other. On the trips, the topics were explored through group discussion, individual discussion, and games. To close the program, all the groups shared their experiences and conclusions with the larger group at a picnic, and evaluated the program via a written questionnaire. Successes of the program are discussed, as are suggestions for improvement. Seven suggestions for beginning a theme-based program were developed: define your objectives, select your format, prepare your staff, get the word out, meet your participants, provide information, and provide closure. (TD)