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We consider the electric vehicle industry as a complex system within which firms choose among competing organisational architectures and regulatory institutions emerge from the interaction between firms' choices and rule-makers' beliefs. The main drivers to change regulatory institutions are the 'evaluative criteria' applied to outcomes. Evaluative criteria are rule-makers' simplified models against which outcomes are evaluated. We look at the emergence of dominant organisational structures, and point at the importance of the institutional design in such process. In particular, we analyse the interaction between policy choices: we consider policy makers that have two main dimensions upon which to act: they may facilitate cooperative strategies, or they may implement demand-side measures.

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International audience; A recent study from the Centre for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden Württemberg (ZSW), reports that in early 2015 over 740,000 electric cars were on the road throughout the world. This is a drop in the ocean compared to the 74 million ICE cars sold last year. However, latest statistics on the sale of electric cars indicate that the market is booming with no less 320,000 vehicles registered in one year, as well as an exponential growth rate of sales worldwide.These results came as no surprise to researchers from the Armand Peugeot Chair, who held the Second International Conference in Paris in December 2014. A previous issue of the International Journal of Automotive Technology and Management (‘Electromobility challenging issues’, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2015) called attention to the fact that the emergence of electromobility has generated three critical challenges for the markets, the industrial processes and the business models of the traditional automotive industry. More specifically, it discussed issues regarding innovation and service transition, issues regarding grid-integration and service-aggregator actions, and lastly issues regarding supportive public policies (Donada and Perez, 2015). How have these challenges evolved one year later, a year during which this new electromobility industry has been booming? This special edition presents five emblematic researches on the issues raised during the sessions of this 2014 conference.

International audience; Electric vehicle (EV) industry is still in the introduction stage in product life cycle, and dominant design remains unclear. EV companies, both incumbent from the car industry and new comers, have long taken numerous endeavors to promote EV in the niche market by providing innovative products and business models. While most carmakers still take 'business as usual' approach for developing their EV production and offers, Tesla Motors, an EV entrepreneurial firm, stands out by providing disruptive innovation solutions. We review the business model approach in the literature, then classify the innovation dimensions in the EV ecosystem. We study Tesla Motors in terms of: (i) innovation related to the vehicle, (ii) innovation related to the battery (iii) innovation concerning the recharging system, and (iv) innovation toward the EV ecosystem. Lessons for incumbent carmakers for their EV business model design: Tesla Motors 1) holds a product strategy entering from high-end market and moving to mass market, with a high level of innovation adaptation and learning by doing; 2) pays considerable attention to reduce range anxiety by high performance supercharger station network and high capacity battery; 3) shows a very high level of integration of information technology into many aspects of the EV business model, such as advanced in-car services and digital distribute channel; 4) shows a new value configuration which involving in high level of vertical integration towards battery and recharging network. All these lessons of this chapter would be worth the attention of the carmakers if the disruptive choices of Tesla succeed in challenging the dominant design.

International audience; Electric vehicles (EVs) are not a 21st century innovation. They first surfaced during the early days of the automotive industry, and continued evolving until the rise of Fordism. During that period, EVs dominated the market but, within a matter of years, they disappeared in favour of internal combustion vehicles (ICV). Throughout the 20th century, researchers, engineers, experts and consultants encouraged manufacturers to launch new EVs, but each attempt led to failure.Today, EVs (full electric, hybrids, plug-in hybrids, as well as hydrogen fuel cell vehicles) are resurfacing through a wide range of projects and in a number of different ways. First, EVs are no longer considered to be experimental concept cars, but rather are incorporated into the production plans of mainstream manufacturers (e.g., Zoé by Renault, Leaf by Nissan, Prius by Toyota, DS by PSA, BMW i by BMW). Second, new entrants to the marketplace like Tesla Motors or BYD are bypassing the barriers that traditionally controlled entry into the automotive industry and are instead positioning themselves within the elite circle of car manufacturers (Donada, 2013). Third, the EVs resurgence does not focus solely on the vehicles themselves but also on a set of associated services such as car-sharing, battery rental, charging infrastructures, and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) systems. Operating these services are many non-automotive companies such as energy and service providers, battery producers, telecoms, and internet companies; all of which are motivated stakeholders in the new ‘electromobility’ industry. Electromobility has much more to offer than simply EVs sold to individuals or fleets. It also refers to the use of electric powertrain technologies, in-vehicle information, vehicle-to-vehicle communication systems and dedicated infrastructures that enable the use of personal or collective EVs. Therefore, the electromobility industry in fact corresponds to the ecosystem of stakeholders contributing to electromobility products and services.Numerous researchers in the fields of management and economics, in engineering sciences, or in political and social sciences, have analysed the development of electromobility in terms of its ‘raison d’être’ and principle consequences. Their studies have been disseminated through books (Ehsani et al., 2009; Calabrese, 2012) and in academic papers published in general or specialised reviews (Aggeri et al., 2009; Sioshansi and Denholm, 2009; San Roman et al., 2011). The authors generally consider electromobilityto be a solution to various mobility issues due to its compliance with fuel efficiency and emission requirements, as well as market demands for lower mobility costs and constraints. Additionally, electromobility can be considered a contributing factor in protecting collective public goods like local public health (via reduced urban air and noise pollution), stabilising the effects of global warming by reducing sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NOx) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and increasing energy security by creating conditions for energy independence that also serve to reduce the impact of oil price fluctuations.

International audience

A key issue to ensuring power system stability is the ability to balance power generation and demand. Real-time balancing is achieved through automatic frequency regulation: primary and secondary controls. Electric vehicles with their storage capacities could be an opportunity to achieve this balance. As electric vehicles (EVs) are principally dedicated to short trips (mainly between home and office), their daily time of use is quite small (less than 2 hours). EVs could be plugged in to the power network more than 20 hours per day. This duration is longer than the time required to fully charge their batteries. A real opportunity consequently exists for grid support through frequency regulation. In the present paper, we propose an economic evaluation of revenues from primary frequency regulation for an aggregator managing an EV fleet. Our study is based on French data for tariffs for capacity reserve, daily trips, electricity prices and tariffs.

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RESUMEN El propósito de este trabajo es analizar los efectos de las reformas de la regulación en los sistemas eléctricos insulares y extrapeninsulares españoles (SE IE), más concretamente, para el caso de las Islas Canarias. Teniendo en cuenta los diferentes modelos de regulación y funcionamiento del sector, así como las particularidades de los sistemas eléctricos aislados, hemos estudiado los posibles efectos del desarrollo de la Ley del Sector Eléctrico de 1997 y las leyes de ámbito autonómico en Canarias. La principal conclusión es la existencia de un modelo de integración y organización del sector que presenta problemas para que funcione eficientemente un mercado liberalizado de electricidad, pero que podría ser mejorado con algunas medidas complementarias. ABSTRACT In this paper we carry out a study of the effects of electricity regulatory reforms for the territories outside the Spanish Peninsula (SEIE), and specially, for the Canary Islands. Taking into account the different models of regulation and functioning of this industry, as well as the peculiarities of the isolated electrical systems, we have studied the possible effects of the development of the Law of the Electrical Sector 97 and the laws of regional level in Canaries. The principal conclusion is the existence of a model of integration and organisation that presents problems to allow an efficient functioning of the liberalized market of electricity but that might be improved by complementary measurements.

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International audience; Demand response is a cornerstone problem in electricity markets under climate change constraints. Most liberalized electricity markets have a poor track record at encouraging the deployment of smart meters and the development of demand response. In Europe, different models are considered for demand response, from a development under a regulated regime to a development under competitive perspectives. In this paper focusing on demand response and smart metering for mid-­‐size and small consumers, we investigate which types of market signals should be sent to demand managers to see demand response emerge as a competitive activity. Using data from the French power system over nine years , we compare the possible market design options which would enable the development of demand response. Our simulations demonstrate that under the current market rules demand response is not a profitable activity in the French electricity industry. Introducing a capacity market could bring additional revenues to demand response providers and improve incentives to put in place demand response programs in a market environment.

Photovoltaic generation and electric mobility are both disruptive technologies in the power and transport sectors raising several issues regarding power grids. Precisely, questions about synergistic potentials when combining these two technologies have attracted academics' interest. Recent researches on this topic demonstrate that interactions between photovoltaic generation and electric mobility could decrease the overall burden on power grids, and empower one technology with the others specificities. Indeed, electric vehicles could use photovoltaic energy and benefit from a low-cost and carbon-free electricity to charge. In return, photovoltaic systems would use the bi-directional flexibility of electric vehicles battery to maximize their self-consumption. As these synergies operate, these technologies economic spillovers may improve, stimulating their joint deployment. The objective of this paper is to develop a systematic framework in order to review the different underlying conditions for synergy as they have been studied in the literature. It appears that this synergy was driven by technical characteristics as well as economic aspects. First, this synergy happens in middle-sized spatial configuration (large workplace buildings and charging station) and less obviously at other scales and in situation of technologically diversified system. Second, if it was poorly studied in the literature, the economic context (cooperation level between stakeholders, regulation and policies...) of interactions between photovoltaic generation and electric mobility is crucial for a successful synergy. Finally, we identify several remaining issues about these conditions that further researches could investigate.

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