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We describe how a bog hydrology simulation model, developed in the System Dynamics environment, predicts the changes in the groundwater levels that result from drainage ditch closure and partial thinning of the surrounding forest stand. Five plots were selected in an area that was subjected to such ecological restoration, and the observed groundwater levels were compared with the simulated ones. Across the plots, the mean difference between the observed and simulated groundwater curves varied between 0.88 and 2.63 cm, and the RMSE between 0.28 and 0.71. Although the absolute difference between the predicted vs. observed values was greater in the plots with ditch closure, the curves co-varied more closely there over time. Therefore, hydrological System Dynamics models can be particularly useful for relative comparisons and risk-mapping of novel management scenarios.

Plant community biomass production is co-dependent on climatic and edaphic factors that are often covarying and non-independent. Disentangling how these factors act in isolation is challenging, especially along large climatic gradients that can mask soil effects. As anthropogenic pressure increasingly alters local climate and soil resource supply unevenly across landscapes, our ability to predict concurrent changes in plant community processes requires clearer understandings of independent and interactive effects of climate and soil. To address this, we developed a multispecies phytometer (i.e., standardized plant community) for separating key drivers underlying plant productivity across gradients. Phytometers were composed of three globally cosmopolitan herbaceous perennials, Dactylis glomerata, Plantago lanceolata, and Trifolium pratense. In 2017, we grew phytometer communities in 18 sites across a pan-European aridity gradient in local site soils and a standardized substrate and compared biomass production. Standard substrate phytometers succeeded in providing a standardized climate biomass response independent of local soil effects. This allowed us to factor out climate effects in local soil phytometers, establishing that nitrogen availability did not predict biomass production, while phosphorus availability exerted a strong, positive effect independent of climate. Additionally, we identified a negative relationship between biomass production and potassium and magnesium availability. Species-specific biomass responses to the environment in the climate-corrected biomass were asynchronous, demonstrating the importance of species interactions in vegetation responses to global change. Biomass production was co-limited by climatic and soil drivers, with each species experiencing its own unique set of co-limitations. Our study demonstrates the potential of phytometers for disentangling effects of climate and soil on plant biomass production and suggests an increasing role of P limitation in the temperate regions of Europe.

Responses to COVID-19 altered environmental exposures and health behaviours associated with non-communicable diseases. We aimed to (1) quantify changes in nitrogen dioxide (NO2), noise, physical activity, and greenspace visits associated with COVID-19 policies in the spring of 2020 in Barcelona (Spain), Vienna (Austria), and Stockholm (Sweden), and (2) estimated the number of additional and prevented diagnoses of myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, depression, and anxiety based on these changes. We calculated differences in NO2, noise, physical activity, and greenspace visits between pre-pandemic (baseline) and pandemic (counterfactual) levels. With two counterfactual scenarios, we distinguished between Acute Period (March 15th - April 26th, 2020) and Deconfinement Period (May 2nd - June 30th, 2020) assuming counterfactual scenarios were extended for 12 months. Relative risks for each exposure difference were estimated with exposure-risk functions. In the Acute Period, reductions in NO2 (range of change from -16.9 μg/m3 to -1.1 μg/m3), noise (from -5 dB(A) to -2 dB(A)), physical activity (from -659 MET*min/wk to -183 MET*min/wk) and greenspace visits (from -20.2 h/m to 1.1 h/m) were largest in Barcelona and smallest in Stockholm. In the Deconfinement Period, NO2 (from -13.9 μg/m3 to -3.1 μg/m3), noise (from -3 dB(A) to -1 dB(A)), and physical activity levels (from -524 MET*min/wk to -83 MET*min/wk) remained below pre-pandemic levels in all cities. Greatest impacts were caused by physical activity reductions. If physical activity levels in Barcelona remained at Acute Period levels, increases in annual diagnoses for MI (mean: 572 (95% CI: 224, 943)), stroke (585 (6, 1156)), depression (7903 (5202, 10,936)), and anxiety (16,677 (926, 27,002)) would be anticipated. To decrease cardiovascular and mental health impacts, reductions in NO2 and noise from the first COVID-19 surge should be sustained, but without reducing physical activity. Focusing on cities' connectivity that promotes active transportation and reduces motor vehicle use assists in achieving this goal. Sarah Koch (SK) was funded by a Marie Sklodowska Curie Individual Fellowship by the European Commission (80513); Sasha Khomenko (SK): received funding from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation through the “Ayudas para la Formación de Profesorado Universitario (FPU) 2020–24” doctoral funding (FPU19/05210); JW has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant agreement No 817754). The Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal) receives support from the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities through the ‘Centro de Excelencia Severo Ochoa 2019–2023′ Programme (CEX 2018-000806-S), and support from the Generalitat de Catalunya through the CERCA Programme.

Litter decomposition is a key process that drives carbon and nutrient cycles in forest soils. The decomposition of five different substrate types was analysed in hemiboreal coniferous forests, focusing on the mass loss and nutrient (N, P, K) release of fine roots (FR) and needle litter in relation to the initial substrate and soil chemistry. A litterbag incubation experiment with site-specific FR and needle litter and three standard substrates (green and rooibos tea, α-cellulose) was carried out in four Norway spruce and four Scots pine-dominated stands in Estonia. Substrate type was the primary driver of mass loss; while the dominant conifer species didn’t affect the decay rate of different substrates either final N-release from the litter. Αlpha-cellulose lost 98±1% of the mass in 2-years, while the FR mass loss was on average 23±2% after 3-years of decomposition. The FR decomposition rate could be predicted using a corresponding model of green tea, although the rate of FR decomposition is approximately five times lower than the rate of green tea in the first 3-years. The annual decomposition rate of the needle litter is rather constant in hemiboreal coniferous forests in the first three years. The initial substrate of fine roots or needle litter and soil chemistry jointly had a significant effect on mass loss in the later stage of decomposition. The critical N concentration for N release was lower for pine FR and needle litter (0.9–1.3% and 0.7–1.1%) compared to spruce (1.2–1.6% and 1.5–1.9%, respectively). The release rate of K depended on the initial K of substrate, while the release of N and P was significantly related to the initial C:N and N:P ratios, respectively. The results show the central role of soil and substrate initial chemistry in the decomposition of fine roots and needle litter across hemiboreal forests, especially at later stage (after two years) of decomposition. The slower decomposition and higher retention of N in the fine roots relative to needle litter suggests that fine roots have a substantial role in the carbon and nitrogen accumulation in boreal and hemiboreal forest ecosystems.

Märksõna koostöö on kõrghariduse võlu- ja võtmesõna, mis aitab toime tulla piiratud ressursside ning kasvava konkurentsiga. Ühise õpetamise vorme on kõrgkoolides kasutusel palju, alates loengute jagamisest eri õppejõudude vahel kuni õpetamiseni võrdselt vastutavate ja panustavate partneritena dialoogi pidades. Artiklis kirjeldatakse ja analüüsitakse Eleri Lõhmuse ja Henry Naritsa koosõpetamise kogemust audiovisuaalse produktsiooni praktilisel kursusel Tartu Ülikooli ühiskonnateaduste instituudis 2018. aasta sügissemestril. Artikkel põhineb autoetnograafiliselt dokumenteeritud materjalil, mida Lõhmus ja Narits kogusid ühistöö käigus. Artikli kolmas autor tegi intervjuud üliõpilastega, et lisada autoetnograafilistele tähelepanekutele õppija vaatepunkt. Kogutud empiirilise materjali analüüs osutab, et koosõpetamine kõrgkoolis on efektiivne ja arendav kõigile osalistele, aga õppetöö õnnestumine sõltub planeerimis- ja refleksioonioskustest ning vajab praegusest rohkem formaalset tuge. Summary

Thinning changes the functioning of the whole forest ecosystem, including carbon and nitrogen (N) cycling. The input of organic matter and N into soil, as well as soil temperature and moist...

In regions where primeval forests have vanished it is unclear whether forest protection can sustain specialized old-forest biota, and over what time scale. We report on population expansion of an old-growth specific fungus of European conservation concern, Amylocystis lapponica, in the forest reserve network of Estonia. This conspicuous species was known for 40 years from only single records in one old-growth forest and was categorized nationally as Critically Endangered. During the last 10 years A. lapponica has expanded over the eastern half of the country, with nine subpopulations, in 12 localities, now known, all in long-protected old-growth forests and several > 50 km apart. In most of the new localities historical absence of the species can be reliably assessed based on earlier surveys. The historical remnant subpopulation has also increased. The population size (c. 100 mature individuals) in Estonia indicates the species should be recategorized nationally as Endangered. This success story suggests that more than 50 years of non-intervention may be needed even in large old-forest reserves for old-growth specialist species to recover.

Hemiboreal forests form a transitional belt between boreal and temperate forests in Eurasia, and due to long-term climate warming they could potentially expand in a northerly direction. However, carbon (C) exchange studies in this transitional forest type are scarce. In 2014–2015 we analyzed CO2 exchange in a hemiboreal mixed forest at SMEAR Estonia (Station for Measuring Ecosystem-Atmosphere Relations) using eddy covariance (EC), soil chamber technique and biometric methods. Employing two plots that differ in forest stand composition (mixed (MP) and coniferous (CP)) located within the footprint of the EC tower, we evaluated heterotrophic and total soil respiration (Rh and Rs, respectively). Measurements showed that C, nitrogen (N), and soil organic matter (SOM) contents in topsoil were significantly higher in the coniferous plot, and the total C stock until 20 cm of mineral soil was higher by a factor of two (i.e., 170.6 and 94.8 t C ha−1 for the CP and MP, respectively). Only in 2015 there was a significant difference in Rs between the plots, while Rh exhibited no detectable difference. The cumulative Rs during the growing season was similar for both plots (CP and MP) and years: 532 and 548 g m−2, respectively, in 2014; 636 and 592 g m−2, respectively, in 2015. The same applied to Rh: 418 and 430 g m−2, respectively, in 2014; 406 and 387 g m−2, respectively, in 2015. The forest as a whole was a C sink. In 2015, net ecosystem exchange (NEE) was -585.62 ± 45.16 g C m−2 yr−1 (the average and SD of two gap-filling methods: MDS and nonlinear regressions). Gross primary production (GPP), and ecosystem respiration (RE) were -1280.62 ± 53.36, and 696.00 ± 98.51 g C m−2 yr−1, respectively (the average and SD of two flux partitioning methods: nighttime data-based and daytime data-based). NEE and GPP suggested a greater similarity to temperate forests, while RE was closer to more boreal forest stands. The mean value of net ecosystem production (NEP) of both plots, estimated using forest stand biometric, litter and chamber data was similar to the annual NEE value: 6.3 and −5.9 t C ha−1 yr−1, respectively.

The second assessment of the threat status of Estonian lichens based on IUCN system was performed in 2019. The main basis for choosing the species to be currently assessed was the list of legally protected lichens and the list of species assigned to the Red List Categories RE–DD in 2008. Species that had been assessed as Least Concern (LC) in 2008 were not evaluated. Altogether, threat status of 229 lichen species was assessed, among them 181 were assigned to the threatened categories (CR, EN, VU), while no species were assigned to the LC category. Compared to the previous red list, category was deteriorated for 58% and remained the same for 32% of species. In Estonia, threatened lichens inhabit mainly forests (particularly dry boreal and nemoral deciduous stands), alvar grasslands, sand dunes and various saxicolous habitats. Therefore, the most frequent threat factors were forest cutting and overgrowing of alvars and dunes (main threat factor for 96 and 70 species, respectfully). Eesti samblike punane nimestik 2019 2019. aastal viidi läbi teistkordne IUCN süsteemil põhinev Eesti samblike ohustatuse hindamine. Hinnati liike, mis on riiklikult kaitstud ning liike, mis 2008. aasta hindamise järgi olid Eestis kas regionaalselt välja surnud, kriitilises seisundis, väljasuremisohus, ohualtid, ohulähedased või puuduliku andmestikuga (kategooriad RE–DD). 2008. a-l kategooriasse Soodsas seisundis (LC) kuulunud liike ei kaasatud uude hindamisse. Kokku hinnati 229 samblikuliigi ohustatust, nendest 181 kuulusid ohustatud kategooriatesse (CR, EN või VU); ükski hinnatud liik ei sobinud kategooriasse LC. Võrreldes eelmise punase nimestikuga tõusis kategooria 58% liikidel ning jäi samaks 32%-l. Ohustatud samblikuliigid asustavad Eestis peamiselt metsi (eriti palu- ja salumetsi), loopealseid, liivikuid ning erinevaid kivi-kasvupindu. Seetõttu on sagedasemad ohutegurid metsaraie ning loodude ja liivikute kinnikasvamine (oluline tegur vastavalt 96 ja 70 liigile).

Rat carcasses obtained from pest control interventions can potentially be used for an efficient surveillance of zoonotic diseases such as leptospirosis. To evaluate the performance of diff...

Conservation scientists often lack explicit understanding of the knowledge problems faced in practical conservation, which can be resolved through communication between the scientists and the managers. Focusing on cost-effectiveness of such communication, we planned and implemented a rapid research gap prioritization procedure for the main stakeholder groups in conservation management and policy (‘managers’) in Estonia. The procedure required each research gap to be explicitly linked with its expected application and comprised three steps: (i) preparatory work of the managers to list their main knowledge gaps; (ii) a seminar for representatives of all the main manager groups to sort out the potentially most influential research topics at the national scale; (iii) analysis and synopsis writing of the top-voted topics. Researchers provided the methodology, facilitated the procedure, helped to translate practical problems into research topics and checked the topics for existing research. The paper describes the 13 high-priority research topics, which were distinguished among more than 60 topics listed. Land-use planning decisions (notably in forests) were most frequently perceived to lack critical knowledge, while only two priority topics were listed for political decision-making (both in agricultural policy). The priority topics proposed for wetland conservation focused on management techniques to mitigate artificial drainage. Our experience was that, through direct two-way communication between managers and researchers, the perceived knowledge gaps in conservation can be rapidly and transparently formulated as research topics. However, the managers’ views tend to focus on short-term effects of conservation, and a different procedure may be needed for researchers who might vision for longer and less predictable future.

Dead wood (DW) provides critical habitat for thousands of species in forests, but its amount, quality and diversity have been heavily reduced by forestry. Therefore, interventions aiming to increase DW might be necessary to support its associated biodiversity, even in protected forests, which may be former production forests. Our aim was to synthesize the current state of knowledge drawn from replicated experimental studies into solid quantitative evidence of the effects of DW manipulation on forest biodiversity, with a focus on protected forests. We conducted a full systematic review of effects of DW manipulation on forest biodiversity in boreal and temperate regions. We included three intervention types: creation of DW from live trees at the site, addition of DW from outside the site and prescribed burning. Outcomes included abundance and species richness of saproxylic insects, ground insects, wood-inhabiting fungi, lichens, reptiles and cavity-nesting birds. In total, we included 91 studies, 37 of which were used in meta-analyses. Although meta-analysis outcomes were heterogeneous, they showed that increasing the amount of DW (“DW enrichment”) has positive effects on the abundance and richness of saproxylic insects and fungi. The positive effect on saproxylic pest insect abundance tended to be less than that on saproxylic insects in general. No significant effects were found for ground insects or cavity-nesting birds. Although reviewed studies were mainly short term, our results support that management that increases DW amounts has the potential to increase the abundance of DW-dependent species and, in most cases, also their species richness. Studies of burning showed positive effects on the abundance of saproxylic insects similar to those of other interventions, even though burning on average resulted in a smaller enrichment of DW amounts. Policy implications. The findings of the review suggest that manipulating dead wood (DW) can be an effective part of conservation management to support biodiversity in protected areas. The findings also indicate that the diversity of DW types is important, a mix of DW qualities should be favoured. Burning seems to be an effective method to increase biodiversity but to benefit cavity-nesting birds, snag losses need to be minimized.

Green areas might provide an inviting setting and thereby promote physical activity. The objective of this study was to determine whether moving to different green area surroundings was followed by changes of physical activity. Data from a large population-based cohort of adults in Stockholm County responding to surveys in 2010 and 2014 were analysed (n = 42611). Information about walking/cycling and exercise were self-reported and living area greenness data were satellite-derived (NDVI, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index). Multinomial logistic regression analyses were performed separately for changes in levels of walking/cycling and exercise (decrease, stable, increase). Greenness was defined as a change in NDVI quartile to less green, same, or greener. Odds ratio's (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were presented adjusted for gender, age, education and area-based income. Contrary to what we hypothesized, those moving to a greener area were more likely to decrease their levels of walking/cycling (OR = 1.42, CI = 1.28–1.58), whereas those moving to a less green area were more likely to increase their walking/cycling (OR = 1.26, CI = 1.13–1.41). Exercise behaviour showed another pattern, with people being more likely to decrease exercise both when moving to a greener (OR = 1.25, CI = 1.22–1.38) and to a less green area (OR = 1.22, CI = 1.09–1.36). Studying subpopulations based on sociodemographic characteristics did not aid to clarify our results. This cohort study with repeated measurements did not support the currently available cross-sectional studies showing a strong positive relation between greenness and physical activity. Nevertheless, our findings have shown spatial patterns related to green areas and physical activity which imply a need for place-specific health policies.

Retention forestry is regarded as an efficient approach for conserving ecosystem functions and biodiversity in production forests, but its long-term impacts on forest ecosystem goods and services are poorly documented. We investigated the functioning of solitary retention trees in regenerated young forest as refuges or dispersal centres for shade-preferring species and explored the potential cost on future timber supply due to suppressed tree regeneration. We described land snail assemblages, soil characteristics, vegetation structure and stand regeneration along 50-m transects radially away from 34 deciduous retention trees in young stands (15–16 years post-harvest, passed the pre-commercial thinning) in Estonia. General linear modelling revealed that the abundance and species richness of snails were higher in close proximity of the retention trees. Neither stand regeneration density nor its basal area varied systematically along the distance gradient. Thus, contrary to our hypothesis, the positive impact of retention trees on shade-preferring and hygrophilous species group in young production stands had no clear trade-off with stand regeneration. The development of both these functions should be studied further in maturing forests.

Clear-cutting is a conventional method of forest management which significantly changes carbon (C) cycling at the ecosystem level for a long time. Estimation of the interim period during which the ecosystem turns from a C source to a C sink is crucial for clarifying the environmental effects of management on forest C cycling. The current study provided new knowledge of C cycling in young pine stand and demonstrated the recovery of C sequestration of the forest ecosystem during the post harvesting period. We estimated the C balance in a 6-year-old Scots pine stand by using two different methods: carbon budgeting, for estimating annual net ecosystem production (NEP), and eddy covariance (EC), for estimating net ecosystem exchange (NEE). For C budgeting, the above- and belowground biomass production of the ecosystem, as well as the soil heterotrophic respiration efflux at the studied site was estimated. Annual NEE at the studied young forest ecosystem was 1.19 ± 0.36 t C ha−1, gross primary ecosystem production was 9.87 and total ecosystem respiration was 11.06 t C ha−1. Estimated NEE was in good accordance with the results of NEP (1.37 t C ha−1), which confirms the relevance of the C budgeting method. Increased annual woody biomass production is the main factor which induced the young Scots pine ecosystem to act as a C sink: annual C accumulation in tree biomass in a 6-year-old stand was 1.0 t C ha−1 but reached already 2.4 t C ha−1 in the following year. Assuming that the annual Rh flux is of the same magnitude in the subsequent years, the ecosystem will become a C sink already during a short period after clear-cut. Annual soil respiration (Rs) and heterotrophic soil respiration (Rh) were 6.0 and 4.2 t C ha−1, respectively and the Rh/Rs ratio was 0.70. However, at this stage also the understorey vegetation contributed essentially to NEP, making up 56% of the annual C uptake accumulated in the plants. The methane flux and the leached C flux were negligible, 0.004 and 0.015 t C ha−1 yr−1, respectively. Our results demonstrate that well regenerated young Scots pine stand on a former clear-cut area will be able to turn into a C sequestering ecosystem already before ten years after cutting.

Seoul virus (SEOV) is the etiologic agent of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. It is carried by brown rats (Rattus norvegicus), a commensal rodent that closely cohabitates with humans in urban environments. SEOV has a worldwide distribution, and in Europe, it has been found in rats in UK, France, Sweden, and Belgium, and human cases of SEOV infection have been reported in Germany, UK, France, and Belgium. In the search of hantaviruses in brown rats from the Netherlands, we found both serological and genetic evidence for the presence of SEOV in the local wild rat population. To further decipher the relationship with other SEOV variants globally, the complete genome of SEOV in the Netherlands was recovered. SEOV sequences obtained from three positive rats (captured at close trapping locations at the same time) were found highly similar. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that two lineages of SEOV circulate in Europe. Strains from the Netherlands and UK, together with the Baxter strain from US, constitute one of these two, while the second includes strains from Europe and Asia. Our results support a hypothesis of diverse routes of SEOV spread into Europe. These findings, combined with other indications on the expansion of the spatial European range of SEOV, suggest an increased risk of this virus for the public health, highlighting the need for increased surveillance.

Living near, recreating in, and feeling psychologically connected to, the natural world are all associated with better mental health, but many exposure-related questions remain. Using data from an 18-country survey (n = 16,307) we explored associations between multiple measures of mental health (positive well-being, mental distress, depression/anxiety medication use) and: (a) exposures (residential/recreational visits) to different natural settings (green/inland-blue/coastal-blue spaces); and (b) nature connectedness, across season and country. People who lived in greener/coastal neighbourhoods reported higher positive well-being, but this association largely disappeared when recreational visits were controlled for. Frequency of recreational visits to green, inland-blue, and coastal-blue spaces in the last 4weeks were all positively associated with positive well-being and negatively associated with mental distress. Associations with green space visits were relatively consistent across seasons and countries but associations with blue space visits showed greater heterogeneity. Nature connectedness was also positively associated with positive well-being and negatively associated with mental distress and was, along with green space visits, associated with a lower likelihood of using medication for depression. By contrast inland-blue space visits were associated with a greater likelihood of using anxiety medication. Results highlight the benefits of multi-exposure, multi-response, multi-country studies in exploring complexity in nature-health associations.