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The first fossil streblid, Enischnomyia stegosoma n. g., n. sp. (Diptera: Hippoboscoidea: Streblidae), is described from Dominican amber. Placed in the subfamily Nycterophiliinae Wenzel, 1966, which includes two New World extant genera, Nycterophilia Ferris, 1916 and Phalconomus Wenzel, 1984 (=Phalcophila Wenzel, 1976), the male specimen of E. stegosoma is characterised by the following features: a laterally compressed body, well-developed two-segmented antennae with the scape fused with the head, a tubular pedicel with an annulated basal portion and swollen apical portion bearing setae and bristles, a distinct flagellum with a dorsal boss bearing microsetae and a subterminal pectinate arista, a large tubular labium (proboscis) with the tip held upwards, eyes reduced to three facets, an expanded and flattened profemur, an anteriorly curved protarsus, and a well-developed wing with an entire distal margin. The possession of wings separates E. stegosoma from the species of Phalconomus, and the wing outline and venation, as well as the structure of the antennae and palps, distinguish it from species of Nycterophilia.

PubMed ID: 21643896 A new species of mermithid nematode, Hexamermiseurygasteri n. sp. (Nematoda: Mermithidae) is described as a parasite of the sunn pest Eurygaster integriceps Puton (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae) in Turkey. The combination of the following characters separate H. eurygasteri from other members of Hexamermis Steiner, 1924, as defined by Artyukhovsky (1990) and Kaiser (1991): amphidial pouch integrated into lateral cephalic papillae; amphidial openings minute; well-developed cuticular vulval cone; small vulval lips; vagina straight or slightly curved at tip, without reverse bend; spicules shorter in length than body diameter at cloaca; spicules straight, except occasionally for short bend at base; spicule tips bluntly rounded; and two double rows of genital papillae. This is the first description of a nematode parasite of a member of the Scutelleridae and the first description of a mermithid nematode from Turkey. This mermithid has potential as a biological control agent in an integrated control programme of the sunn pest. © 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

Fossil evidence can reveal a wealth of information regarding entomogenous nematodes. Amber is an excellent medium for the preservation of such fossils because it protects delicate organisms like nematodes, often along with their insect hosts. Such fossils establish a baseline for the appearance and continuation of parasite lineages as well as parasite-host associations. Thus far, fossil records of insect parasites have been discovered in the following nematode groups: terrestrial and aquatic Mermithidae, Tetradonematidae, Iotonchidae, Diplogasteridae, Allantonematidae, Sphaerulariidae, and Rhabditidae. Records date from 15 to 130 million years, demonstrating that these associations have existed for a considerable length of time.

Background The remarkable mutualistic associations between termites and protists are in large part responsible for the evolutionary success of these eusocial insects. It is unknown when this symbiosis was first established, but the present study shows that fossil termite protists existed in the Mesozoic. Results A new species of termite (Kalotermes burmensis n. sp.) in Early Cretaceous Burmese amber had part of its abdomen damaged, thus exposing trophic stages and cysts of diverse protists. Some protists were still attached to the gut intima while others were in the amber matrix adjacent to the damaged portion. Ten new fossil flagellate species in the Trichomonada, Hypermastigida and Oxymonadea are described in nine new genera assigned to 6 extant families. Systematic placement and names of the fossil flagellates are based on morphological similarities with extant genera associated with lower termites. The following new flagellate taxa are established: Foainites icelus n. gen. n. sp., Spiromastigites acanthodes n. gen. n. sp., Trichonymphites henis n. gen., n. sp., Teranymphites rhabdotis n. gen. n. sp., Oxymonas protus n. sp., Oxymonites gerus n. gen., n. sp., Microrhopalodites polynucleatis n. gen., n. sp., Sauromonites katatonis n. gen., n. sp., Dinenymphites spiris n. gen., n. sp., Pyrsonymphites cordylinis n. gen., n. sp. A new genus of fossil amoeba is also described as Endamoebites proterus n. gen., n. sp. Fourteen additional trophic and encystid protist stages are figured and briefly characterized. Conclusion This represents the earliest fossil record of mutualism between microorganisms and animals and the first descriptions of protists from a fossil termite. Discovering the same orders, families and possibly genera of protists that occur today in Early Cretaceous kalotermitids shows considerable behaviour and morphological stability of both host and protists. The possible significance of protist cysts associated with the fossil termite is discussed in regards the possibility that coprophagy, as well as proctodeal trophallaxis, was a method by which some termite protozoa were transferred intrastadially and intergenerationally at this time.

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses amber, which is a fossilized resin ranging from several million to 300 million years of age. Amber is a gold mine for the entomologist because it contains a variety of insects preserved in pristine, three-dimensional condition. External features are so well preserved that taxonomists can make detailed comparisons with living taxa to follow evolutionary development of families, genera, and species. Aside from establishing direct evidence of an insect taxon at a particular time and place, the presence of specific insects provides indirect evidence of plants and vertebrates, establishes the time frame for symbiotic associations, and provides clues for reconstructing ancient landscapes. As a result of the excellent preservation of amber arthropods, the ancestry of specific genera and families can be traced back to tens of millions of years. Discovering extinct generic and family lineages is also possible, especially in Cretaceous amber. Further, amber insects can provide evidence of specific habitats. Because of the sudden death of captured organisms in amber, symbiotic associations may be preserved in a manner unlikely to occur with other types of preservation. Also, the fine details of preservation may reveal morphological features characteristic of symbiotic associations. Cases of paleosymbiosis in amber include inquilinism, commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism. Amber insects can provide evidence of past distributions as well as clues to climatic regimens that occurred at the original sites.

Phyllopsora dominicanus sp. nov. (Bacidiaceae, Lecanorales, lichen-forming Ascomycota) is described and illustrated from Dominican amber. The diagnostic features of the lichen include a minute subfolious thallus of lacinulate, ascending squamules, a well-developed upper cortex, and a net-like pseudocortex on the lower surface. The algal symbionts are unicellular green algae, forming a distinct layer immediately below the upper cortex. The fossil demonstrates that distinguishing features of Phyllopsora have remained unchanged for tens of millions of years. The fossil also provides the first detailed views of mycobiont-photobiont contacts in Tertiary green algal lichens. The mycobiont hyphae formed apical and intercalary appressoria by pressing closely against the photobiont cells. This indicates that a conserved maintenance of structure is also seen in the fine details of the fungal-algal interface.

Some parasites modify characteristics of intermediate hosts to facilitate their consumption by subsequent hosts, but examples of parasite‐mediated mimicry are rare. Here we report dramatic changes in the appearance and behavior of nematode‐parasitized ants such that they resemble ripe fruits in the tropical rain forest canopy. Unlike healthy ants, which are completely black, infected ants have bright red, berry‐like gasters full of parasite eggs. The infected gasters are held in a conspicuous elevated position as the ants are walking, and they are easily detached from living ants, which also exhibit reduced defensive responses. This combination of changes presumably makes the infected ants attractive to frugivorous birds, which ingest the red gasters and pass the parasite eggs in their feces. The feces are collected by ants and fed to the developing brood, thus completing the cycle. This is the first documentation of parasites causing apparent fruit mimicry in an animal host to complete their li...

Paleoophiocordyceps coccophagus, a fungal parasite of a scale insect from the Early Cretaceous (Upper Albian), is reported and described here. This fossil not only provides the oldest fossil evidence of animal parasitism by fungi but also contains morphological features similar to asexual states of Hirsutella and Hymenostilbe of the extant genus Ophiocordyceps (Ophiocordycipitaceae, Hypocreales, Sordariomycetes, Pezizomycotina, Ascomycota). Because species of Hypocreales collectively exhibit a broad range of nutri- tional modes and symbioses involving plants, animals and other fungi, we conducted ancestral host reconstruction coupled with phylogenetic dating analyses calibrated with P. coccophagus. These results support a plant-based ancestral nutritional mode for Hypocreales, which then diversified ecologically through a dynamic process of intra- and interkingdom host shifts involving fungal, higher plant and ani- mal hosts. This is especially evident in the families Cordycipitaceae, Clavicipitaceae and Ophiocordycipit- aceae, which are characterized by a high occurrence of insect pathogens. The ancestral ecologies of Clavicipitaceae and Ophiocordycipitaceae are inferred to be animal pathogens, a trait inherited from a common ancestor, whereas the ancestral host affiliation of Cordycipitaceae was not resolved. Phyloge- netic dating supports both a Jurassic origin of fungal-animal symbioses within Hypocreales and parallel diversification of all three insect pathogenic families during the Cretaceous, concurrent with the diversi- fication of insects and angiosperms.

The bee fossil record is fragmentary, making it difficult to accurately estimate the antiquity of bee-mediated pollination. Here, we describe a bee fossil [Melittosphex burmensis (new species), Melittosphecidae (new family)] from Early Cretaceous Burmese amber (~100 million years before the present). The fossil provides insights into the morphology of the earliest bees and provides a new minimum date for the antiquity of bees and bee-mediated pollination.

Allomermis solenopsi n. sp. (Mermithidae: Nematoda) is described from the fire ant Solenopsis invicta Buren (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Argentina. Diagnostic characters of the new species include stiff and erect processes on the surface of the mature egg, small female amphids, extension of the latero-medial rows of male genital papillae beyond the middle rows, an obliquely truncate spicule tip and a ventrally swollen male terminus. This is the first record of Allomermis Steiner, 1924 from South America and the first host record for members of this genus. Previous records of mermithids from Solenopsis spp. are summarised. The placement in Allomermis was confirmed by molecular analyses based on nuclear 18S ribosomal DNA sequences, the first such molecular framework for the Mermithidae. The possible life-cycle of the parasite is discussed, with the aim of using A. solenopsi as a biological control agent for fire ants in the United States.

Chroniodiplogaster formosiana sp. n. (Rhabditida: Diplogastridae) is described from a population of Odontotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Termitidae) collected from dead (unidentified) wood at Dinghu Park, China. Characters of C. formosiana which separate it from C. aerivora (Cobb) are a longer tail, the presence of four micropapillae (quadriform condition), and the adjacent position of the second and third macropapillae on the male tail. The diplogasterid Pristionchus uniformis Fedorko & Stanuszek, which is transferred to Chroniodiplogaster, can be distinguished from both C. formosiana and C. aerivora by the position of its excretory pore. Variable results in experimental infection trials suggest that some still unknown factor or factors are important in the infection process. Further studies are necessary to better define these factors before C. formosiana can be considered as a biological control agent of the Formosan termite.

Protozoan cysts and helminth eggs preserved in a coprolite from the Early Cretaceous Bernissart Iguanodon shaft in Belgium demonstrate that representatives of 3 phyla parasitized dinosaurs by that period. These fossil parasite stages are described and their possible effect on dinosaurs discussed. These findings represent the earliest fossil records of protozoan and helminth parasites of terrestrial vertebrates.

The present report describes a mermithid nematode (Nematoda: Mermithidae) and a gordiid hairworm (Nematomorpha: Chordodidae) from Early Cretaceous Burmese amber dated at 100-110 million years. The mermithid, Cretacimermis protus sp. n., is emerging from a biting midge (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) while the hairworm, Cretachordodes burmitis, gen. n., sp. n. had already emerged from its host. These rare specimens represent the first fossil mermithid parasite of a ceratopogonid midge and second oldest described nematode and the earliest known and only Mesozoic fossil of the phylum Nematomorpha. A list of previously described fossil mermithids is included.

The following new recent species of mermithid (Nematoda) parasites of Neotropical ants are described: Meximermis ectatommi n.gen., n. sp. from workers of Ectatomma ruidum Roger in Southern Mexico, Agamomermis cephaloti n. sp. from a worker of Cephalotes minutus (Fab.) collected in Brazil, Agamomermis ecitoni n. sp. from a worker of Eciton burchellii Westwood collected in Venezuela and Agamomermis costaricensis n. sp. from a worker of Odontomachus hastatus (Fab.) collected in Costa Rica. In addition, a fossil mermithid parasite of a worker of Linepithema sp. from Dominican amber is described as Heydenius myrmecophila n. sp. These parasites represent the first descriptions of Neotropical ant mermithids and together with previous records listed here, show that ant infection by mermithids in the Neotropics is widespread and has occurred for at least 20-30 million years.

Metaparasitylenchus hypothenemin. sp. (Nematoda: Allantonematidae) is described from the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei(Ferrari) (Curculionidae: Scolytinae), in Chiapas, Mexico. This species differs from other members of the genus by its small size, annulated cuticle, lateral fields with 3 ridges, free-living stages with an excretory pore located between the pharyngeal gland orifices, a distinct stylet with basal swellings in free-living females, a postvulval uterine extension, a thin stylet lacking basal swellings in males, 2 separate spicules, a gubernaculum, and a peloderan bursa. Parasitic females are white, with a straight or slightly curved body and are ovoviviparous. Third-stage juveniles emerge from parasitized beetles and molt twice before reaching the adult stage. Because the coffee berry borer is the most important pest of coffee throughout the world and this parasite partially or completely sterilizes female beetles, it is worthy of further investigation as a potential biological control agent. The coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Curculionidae: Scolytinae)) is the most important pest of cof- fee in the world (Le Pelley, 1968). Because most of the life history of the beetle occurs within the protected confines of the coffee berry, standard chemical control methods have, for the most part, been unsuccessful (Bustillo et al., 1998), with resis- tance arising against the most commonly used insecticide, en- dosulfan (Brun et al., 1989). As a result, alternative biological control methods are being investigated, including the use of pathogens and parasitoids to be included in pest management strategies against the coffee berry borer. During studies on the biology of the coffee berry borer in field plantations in the municipality of Cacahoatan, Chiapas, parasitic nematodes were discovered in the body cavity of adult beetles (Fig. 9) and tentatively assigned to Sphaerulariopsis (Castillo et al., 2002). The presence of the excretory pore an- terior to the nerve ring, males with well-developed stylets, ce- phalated spicules, a gubernaculum, and a large peloderan bursa, together with elongate-tuboid parasitic females, places the pre- sent species in Metaparasitylenchus Wachek 1955 (Siddiqi, 2000). Because the specimens differ from all previously de- scribed species in the genus (Wachek, 1955; Siddiqi, 2000), they are described below as a new species. MATERIALS AND METHODS Although over 200 infected hosts were examined during this inves- tigation, the description was based on nematodes obtained from 10 lar- vae, 7 pupae, and 20 adult beetles. Nematodes (third-stage juveniles) that emerged from the body cavity of adult beetles were placed in hang- ing-drop slides (H2O) and observed daily during a 2-wk period. The hanging-drop slides were placed in separate petri dishes containing wet filter paper to retard drying and held at 20 C. During this time, the nematodes matured and molted to the adult stage. Observations and photographs were made with living as well as fixed nematodes using a Nikon Optiphot Microscope. Measurements were made on nematodes that had been killed in hot (60 C) water, fixed in TAF, and processed to glycerin by the evaporation method. All measurements, including the average value and those of the range (in parentheses), are in micro- meters unless otherwise specified.

Summary A trypanosomatid (Trypanosomatidae: Kinetoplastida) associated with a blood-filled female sand fly in Cretaceous Burmese amber, is described in the new genus and species, Paleoleishmania proterus. The genus Paleoleishmania is established as a collective genus for digenetic fossil trypanosomes associated with sand flies. Amastigotes, promastigotes and paramastigotes are described. Paleoleishmania proterus is the first fossil kinetoplastid and provides a minimum age for the digenetic Trypanosomatidae. Its discovery indicates that vector-borne pathogens had been established by the Early Cretaceous.

A new species of hairworm, Parachordodes tegonotus n. sp. (Gordioidea: Nematomorpha) is described from three species of ground beetles (Carabidae: Coleoptera) from the state of Oregon. This is the first record of Parachordodes Camerano parasitising carabid beetles in North America. Diagnostic characters for the new species include size, colour, the nature and arrangement of the areoles, and the character, shape and extant of ornamentation on the ventral surface of the male tail. Encysted hairworm larvae found in the internal tissues of mayfly and caddisfly larvae at the type-locality were presumed to be those of P. tegonotus, indicating an indirect life-cycle involving paratenic hosts. A worldwide host list shows that some 70 species of ground beetles have been documented as developmental hosts to hairworms belonging to at least five genera, namely Gordius, Parachordodes, Dacochordodes, Gordionus and Paragordionus.

Further evidence is provided showing that the Early Cretaceous juvenile and male spiders entrapped together in a web in a piece of amber from Myanmar are conspecific (Geratonephila burmanica) and members of a communal web, thus indicating spider sociality. Pictorial evidence of physical contact between the juvenile spider and the wasp entrapped in its web and the type of prey utilized by present day nephilids, leaves no doubt about the predatory behavior of the spider.

The first tylenchid parasite of ants, Formicitylenchus oregonensis n. g., n. sp., is described from a queen carpenter ant Camponotus vicinus Mayr in Western Oregon, USA. The new genus is characterised by the excretory pore anterior to the nerve-ring and rounded tails in the free-living adults, a stylet bearing basal thickenings in the free-living female, a smaller stylet lacking basal thickenings in the male and a short, crenulate leptoderan bursa. The mature parasitic female is light yellow and ovoviviparous. F. oregonensis n. sp. is closely related to members of Metaparasitylenchus Wachek, 1955, with species parasitising beetles living under bark or in rotten wood, a habitat similar to that of carpenter ants. However, males of Metaparasitylenchus are characterised by a fairly long tail with a broad peloderan bursa. It is suggested that this case of tylenchid parasitism in ants is an example of environmental host selection. A review of the described nematode parasites of ants is presented.

Three species of fossil epiphyllous coelomycetes are described from Dominican and Mexican amber in the new genera, Asteromites gen. nov., Leptostromites gen. nov. and Leptothyrites gen. nov. Characters of the pycnidia and spores most closely resemble members of their extant respective genera, Leptostroma, Asteromella, and Leptothyrium, respectively. A. mexicanus sp. nov. occurs on a petal (possibly from a caesalpinoid legume such as Peltogyne) in Mexican amber. Leptostromites ellipticus sp. nov. occurs on a dicot leaf in Dominican amber, and Leptothyrites dominicanus sp. nov. on a monocot (grass?) leaf in Dominican amber.

A new record of nematode parasitism of meloid beetles is reported and all earlier records are summarised. Rates of parasitism could be influenced by the toxic compound cantharidin that these beetles possess.

A new nematode, Thaumamermis zealandica n. sp. (Mermithidae; Nematoda), is described parasitising the intertidal marine amphipod Talorchestia quoyana Milne-Edwards (Talitridae) from the coast of South Island, New Zealand. The new species is characterised by the degree of dimorphism of the spicules, the arrangement of the genital papillae, the shape and length of the vagina and the anteriorly-placed amphids. This is the first known marine host of a member of the family Mermithidae. Published records of mermithid nematodes from amphipods are presented.

A mermithid nematode emerging from a male ant, Prenolepis henschei Mayr, in Baltic amber is the first fossil record demonstrating nematode parasitism of ants. This parasite, described as Heydenius formicinus sp. n., is compared to extant mermithid parasites of ants, especially Allomermis myrmecophila Baylis 1921. The present fossil, together with earlier reports of braconid and mite parasitism of ants in Baltic amber, indicates that several diverse groups had already evolved parasitic associations with ants by the Eocene.

Resins are produced by woody plants on a worldwide basis. We have found several distinct classes of modern diterpenoid resins based phenomenologically on the solid-state (13)C NMR spectra of the bulk material. Resin fossilizes over millions of years into a robust material sometimes called amber. We have characterized several hundred samples of fossil resin by solid-state (13)C NMR spectroscopy. We can relate one globe-spanning group of fossil resins to the modern genus Agathis, based on spectral evolution over time. A second large group has not been related with certainty to specific modern plants. Fossil resins from Europe fall into two categories, the famous Baltic ambers and another that resembles the Agathis group. Fossil resins from the Americas and Africa are closely related to the modern genus Hymenaea. Based on spectral distinctions, fossil resin found in an archaeological context sometimes can be assigned to a specific geographical origin on the basis of its (13)C NMR spectrum.

Adults of the invasive harlequin ladybird, Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), were found to be parasitized by nematodes (Tylenchomorpha: Allantonematidae) in Denmark. The nematodes were identified as Parasitylenchus sp. Major morpho- logical characters of the nematodes did not differ significantly from Parasitylenchus coccinellinae Iperti & van Waerebeke 1968, but minor deviations in egg dimension and tail length were measured. Parasitism was only recorded in early autumn, with prevalence ranging from 2 to 33%. Adult and juvenile nematodes occurred together in the body cavity of both female and male H. axyridis.

The author regrets that the legend for figure 1 should read “Lateral view of Nidula baltica in Baltic amber” instead of “Lateral view of Lepidiosomus balticus”, the legend for figure 2 should read “Top view of peridium of N. baltica in Baltic amber” instead of “Top view of peridium of L. balticus” and the legend for figure 3 should read “Lateral view of peridium of C. dominicanus in Dominican amber” instead of “Lateral view of peridium of C. dominicana”. The author would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused.

The phylum Nematomorpha, the hairworms, occurs worldwide. All members are developmental parasites of aquatic or terrestrial invertebrates. One genus, Nectonema, is marine, whereas the remaining species occur in freshwater as free-living stages or inside terrestrial hosts. Hairworms have two or more hosts in their life cycle. The first paratenic host is just a carrier to the second developmental host. In the developmental host, the hairworm grows to maturity and often kills the host upon emergence. There is no direct economic or medical importance of hairworms and while they can reach up to a foot in length, they are rarely seen. A few species may effect populations of herbivorous insects, but most are not important as biological control agents. Most freshwater hairworms are threatened from polluted waters, habitat displacement and reduced host populations. Many could be considered as candidates for the Red Data Book of rare and endangered species. Hairworms are a relict group that is not closely related to any other living phylum. The preparasitic larvae are quite different from the adults since they possess spines for entering the body cavity of paratenic hosts. Once inside the paratenic host, the larva is surrounded by host tissue and is known as an ‘encysted’ larva. It remains in the cyst until the paratenic host is ingested by a suitable developmental host. If the second host is not suitable for development, the hairworm larvae can encyst again in the new paratenic host. Key Concepts: Hairworms are becoming endangered in many areas of the world. Hairworms have attracted the attention of behaviourists who study how these parasites control the movements of their hosts. Hairworms have no direct economic or medical importance. Hairworms have the ability to arrest development in nondevelopmental hosts. Hairworms are an enigmatic group that are not closely related to any other invertebrates. Hairworms are an ancient group, with fossils dating back to the Early Cretaceous. Keywords: nematomorpha; gordiaceae; hairworm; horsehair worm; marine hairworm; Nectonema; freshwater hairworm

The phylum Nematoda comprises a wide range of roundworms that can be grouped either in nutritional (microbotrophic, predaceous, and parasitic in plants, invertebrates, or vertebrates) or ecological (soil, marine, freshwater, ectoparasitic, endoparasitic, or freeliving) categories. Relatively, little attention has been devoted to this important group of invertebrates by freshwater biologists because of difficulties associated with sampling, extraction, and identification. Nematode representatives of essentially all of the nutritional categories mentioned above occur in freshwater during one or more life stages. However, nematodes are treated in this chapter only if all or a large part of their life cycle occurs in freshwater habitats. Nematode parasites of vertebrates that live in or frequent freshwater usually occur in the freshwater habitat only as eggs or within intermediate hosts. Mermithid parasites of insects are included in the study because the eggs, infective stages, post parasitic juveniles, and adults occur in freshwater habitats. The systematic arrangement of these genera is listed in the chapter. Freshwater nematodes covered in the chapter could be considered as belonging to all groups, the large free-living stages of the Mermithidae would be considered macrofauna, the majority of the adults and juveniles of the other groups would fall under meiofauna, and the young juveniles and eggs of many forms would fall into the microfaunal category. Thus, for nematodes in general, these size categories are little used, although they are helpful if only certain stages are being studied.

Remains of parasites in vertebrates are rare from the Mesozoic and Paleozoic. Once most parasites that live in - or pass through - the gastrointestinal tract of vertebrates, fossil feces (coprolites) or even intestinal contents (enterolites) can eventually preserve their remains. Here we announce the discovery of a spiral shark coprolite from the Paleozoic bearing a cluster of 93 small oval-elliptical smooth-shelled structures, interpreted as eggs of a tapeworm.The eggs were found in a thin section of an elasmobranch coprolite. Most of the eggs are filled by pyrite and some have a special polar swelling (operculum), suggesting they are non-erupted eggs. One of the eggs contains a probable developing larva. The eggs are approximately 145-155 µm in length and 88-100 µm in width and vary little in size within the cluster. The depositional and morphological features of the eggs closely resemble those of cestodes. Not only do the individual eggs have features of extant tapeworms, but their deposition all together in an elongate segment is typical to modern tapeworm eggs deposited in mature segments (proglottids). This is the earliest fossil record of tapeworm parasitism of vertebrates and establishes a timeline for the evolution of cestodes. This discovery shows that the fossil record of vertebrate intestinal parasites is much older than was hitherto known and that the interaction between tapeworms and vertebrates occurred at least since the Middle-Late Permian.

Background The harlequin ladybird, Harmonia axyridis Pallas (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) is native to central and eastern Asia and was purposely introduced into Europe to control aphids. While it proved to be a good biological control agent, its rapid spread and buildup of large populations made it a nuisance, since it overwinters in homes, emits unpleasant odors, stains fabrics, occasionally bites humans and feeds on apples, pears and grapes. Aside from the above, the ravenous appetite of H. axyridis results in their consumption of harmless native insects, including even other ladybird beetles. A study of the natural enemies of H. axyridis in Denmark revealed the presence of nematodes. The present study describes this nematode parasite and discusses aspects of its development and ecology. Methods Adult harlequin ladybird beetles were collected from March to November from four localities in Copenhagen on different plant species. In addition, groups of last-instar larvae and pupae (n = 50) were examined for the presence of nematodes. Living and recently dead nematodes were removed from adult H. axyridis in 0.5% saline solution, the nematodes were then heat killed (at 75C), fixed in 5% formalin and transferred to glycerin on slides for further examination and measurements. Results A new species of Allantonematidae (Tylenchida), Parasitylenchus bifurcatus n. sp., is described from adults of the harlequin ladybird, Harmonia axyridis in Denmark. The new species is characterized by a straight stylet lacking basal thickenings, a bursa and a forked tail tip in the vermiform (infective) females and juvenile males. The new species is compared with P. coccinellinae previously described from ladybird beetles in France. Parasitism resulted in depletion of the fat body and partial or complete atrophy of the reproductive organs of the beetles. Infections occurred throughout the year with rates of parasitism reaching up to 35%. The rate increased to 60% when field-collected ladybirds were incubated for 30 days in the laboratory. Conclusions The production of subsequent generations within the host with only the fertilized females (not the males) leaving the hosts and the absence of parasitism of the larvae and pupae is an impressive developmental modification of P. bifurcatus. It is proposed that the vermiform (infective) females pass from one adult host to another when the beetles are hibernating or in assemblage groups. Rates of parasitism show that P. bifurcatus could be a significant biological control agent of H. axyridis.

A new genus and species of gecko is described from a posterior lower limb and foot, and a partial tail, preserved in Lower Cretaceous amber from Myanmar that is 97–110My old. It appears to be the oldest unequivocal fossil gecko, predating fragmentary skeletal remains from the Upper Cretaceous and being 43–56 My older than Yanatarogecko from the Lower Eocene, previously the oldest known gecko preserved in amber. It also provides firm evidence that gekkotans and possibly gekkonids were in Asia at this time. The Myanmar specimen shows, that the distinctive foot proportions and sophisticated adhesive mechanism, involving pads on the toes with transverse lamellae probably bearing numerous hairlike setae found in many modern geckos, had already evolved around 100My ago. The specimen is very small, even compared with juveniles of the smallest living geckos. However, the high numbers of lamellae on its toe pads suggest it is from a juvenile of a species with relatively large adult body size.

Background Amber fossils can be used to trace the history of disease-vector associations because microorganisms are preserved "in situ" inside the alimentary tract and body cavity of blood-sucking insects. Results Lutzomyia adiketis sp. n. (Phlebotomidae: Diptera) is described from Dominican amber as a vector of Paleoleishmania neotropicum sp. n. (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae). The fossil sand fly differs from all previously described extinct and extant members of the genus by the following combination of characters: Sc forked with the branches meeting the costa and radius veins; wing L/W value of 4.1; a δ value of 18; a ratio β/α value of 0.86, and the shape and size of the spatulate rods on the ninth sternite. The trypanosomatid is characterized by the structure of its promastigotes, amastigotes and paramastigotes and its transmission by an extinct species of sand fly. Conclusion Morphological characters show that the fossil sand fly is a new extinct species and that it is host to a digenetic species of trypanosomatid. This study provides the first fossil evidence that Neotropical sand flies were vectors of trypanosomatids in the mid-Tertiary (20–30 mya).

An examination of character states in a second Burmese amber specimen of Dacochile microsoma Poinar & Brown from the type locality confirms the original placement of this species in the family Tanyderidae and not the Bruchomyiinae, as proposed by Woodley (2005). Of special interest are a row of heavily sclerotized processes shaped like rose thorns and positioned on the inside of the hind tibiae and first two tarsal segments. These processes, which point upward towards the body, suggest that at least the females of Dacochile supported themselves from vegetation by their hind legs, similar to the behavior of some present-day tanyderids.