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Even though bluetongue virus (BTV) transmission is apparently interrupted during winter, bluetongue outbreaks often reappear in the next season (overwintering). Several mechanisms for BTV overwintering have been proposed, but to date, their relative importance remain unclear. In order to assess the probability of BTV overwintering by persistence in adult vectors, ruminants (through prolonged viraemia) or a combination of both, a quantitative risk assessment model was developed. Furthermore, the model allowed the role played by the residual number of vectors present during winter to be examined, and the effect of a proportion of Culicoides living inside buildings (endophilic behaviour) to be explored. The model was then applied to a real scenario: overwintering in Germany between 2006 and 2007. The results showed that the limited number of vectors active during winter seemed to allow the transmission of BTV during this period, and that while transmission was favoured by the endophilic behaviour of some Culicoides, its effect was limited. Even though transmission was possible, the likelihood of BTV overwintering by the mechanisms studied seemed too low to explain the observed re-emergence of the disease. Therefore, other overwintering mechanisms not considered in the model are likely to have played a significant role in BTV overwintering in Germany between 2006 and 2007.

Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic intracellular protozoan parasite of worldwide distribution that infects many species of warm-blooded animals, including birds. To date, there is scant information about the seropositivity of T. gondii and the risk factors associated with T. gondii infection in wild bird populations. In the present study, T. gondii infection was evaluated on sera obtained from 1079 wild birds belonging to 56 species (including Falconiformes (n=610), Strigiformes (n=260), Ciconiiformes (n=156), Gruiformes (n=21), and other orders (n=32), from different areas of Spain. Antibodies to T. gondii (modified agglutination test, MAT titer ≥1:25) were found in 282 (26.1%, IC(95%:)23.5-28.7) of the 1079 birds. This study constitute the first extensive survey in wild birds species in Spain and reports for the first time T. gondii antibodies in the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), short-toed snake-eagle (Circaetus gallicus), Bonelli's eagle (Aquila fasciata), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), osprey (Pandion haliaetus), Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus), Western marsh-harrier (Circus aeruginosus), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), long-eared owl (Asio otus), common scops owl (Otus scops), Eurasian spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia), white stork (Ciconia ciconia), grey heron (Ardea cinerea), common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus); in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) "vulnerable" Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti), lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni) and great bustard (Otis tarda); and in the IUCN "near threatened" red kite (Milvus milvus). The highest seropositivity by species was observed in the Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo) (68.1%, 98 of 144). The main risk factors associated with T. gondii seropositivity in wild birds were age and diet, with the highest exposure in older animals and in carnivorous wild birds. The results showed that T. gondii infection is widespread and can be at a high level in many wild birds in Spain, most likely related to their feeding behaviour., (© 2011 Cabezón et al.)

On the 25th of July 2007, bluetongue virus (BTV) serotype 1 was detected in Andalusia, southern Spain for the first time. A total of 4436 farms infected with BTV-1 were confirmed during that year: 3162 in sheep flocks, 113 in goat flocks, 7 in cattle herds and 1154 in mixed farms (sheep, goat and/or cattle in the same farm). The most common clinical signs were: fever, depression, lethargy, facial edema, and salivation (observed in more than 70% of the infected farms). Lesions in oral mucosa, lameness and dyspnea were also frequently observed. Median morbidity rate in sheep and goat flocks were 6.3% and 2.7% respectively. Median mortality rate was 2.2% in sheep flocks and 1.2% in goat flocks. Median case fatality rate was 29.8% in sheep flocks and 45% in goat flocks. Morbidity and mortality rates were not significantly higher in sheep flocks than in goat flocks (p>0.05), whereas case fatality rate was significant higher in goat flocks compared to sheep flocks (p<0.05). Neither clinical signs nor mortality were observed in cattle herds. The spatial distribution of the risk of BTV infection over Andalusia by municipality was evaluated by means of a hierarchical Bayesian model. The results evidenced that the risk was not homogeneous over the territory, being higher in the western part of the region. The likelihood of BTV infection was increased between 1.01 and 1.16 times by an increase of 10,000 domestic ruminants, and between 1.01 and 1.69 times by the presence of red deer (Cervus elaphus) in the municipality., (2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Serum samples from 2970 (1400 sows, 1570 fattening) pigs, from 100 farms in the 10 main swine production regions in Spain were tested for antibodies against T. gondii by the modified agglutination test (MAT). Antibodies to T. gondii (MAT 1:25 or higher) were detected in 492 pigs (16.6%, 9.7% in fattening pigs and 24.2% in sows). The herd prevalence was 85.0% (95% CI: 78-92) and within-farm prevalence ranged from 2.9% to 92.8% (median=17.6%). Statistically significant differences were observed among sampling regions with seroprevalence significantly higher in pigs from Valencia Community (27.3%), Extremadura (23.3%) and Catalonia (21.2%). A generalized estimating equations model indicated that the risk factors associated with T. gondii seroprevalence were: age, sows compared to fattening pigs (OR=2.9; 95% CI=1.83-4.53), lack of rodent control (OR=1.9; 95% CI=1.04-3.60) and presence of cats (OR=1.6; 95% CI=1.12-2.34). The seroprevalence observed in the present study indicates a widespread, although variable, exposure to T. gondii among domestic pigs in Spain, which might have important implications for public health. Management measures including control of rodents and cats on the farms could help to reduce the observed prevalence levels in Spain.

Seroprevalence and associated risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in pigs were analyzed in 1202 sera samples, including sows and pigs of three, seven, 11, 15 and 20 weeks of age, from 23 farms in Catalonia, north-eastern Spain. Antibodies were tested by the modified agglutination test (MAT) at titers > or =1:25. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 228 samples (19.0%; 95% CI: 16.8-21.2). The individual prevalence in animals higher than 7 weeks of age was 22.8% (174/762; 95% CI: 16.6-29.0) and the within-farm prevalence ranged from 7.1% to 36.4%. Statistically significant differences were found among age classes. The risk factors significantly associated with T. gondii seroprevalence were the presence of cats, percentage of mortality at weaning and the presence of outdoor facilities in the farms. The seroprevalence observed in the present study indicates widespread exposure to T. gondii among domestic pigs in Catalonia, which may have important implications for public health., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A longitudinal study was performed to analyze the dynamics of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in naturally infected piglets from 1 to 25 weeks of age. Seventy-three piglets from 20 seronegative sows (modified agglutination test, MAT <1:25) and 20 naturally infected T. gondii seropositive sows (MAT >or=1:25) were analyzed at 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 22 and 25 weeks of age. Twenty-six of the 73 piglets analyzed (35.6%; CI 95%: 25.5-45.7) were seropositive at some point during the study. Seroprevalence in piglets at 1 and 3 weeks of age was significantly higher in animals born from seropositive sows (P<0.001 and P=0.02, respectively) as an indication of maternally derived antibodies. The longest persistence (up to 6 weeks of age) was observed in piglets whose dam had high T. gondii antibody level (MAT >or=1:500), while persistence of maternally derived antibodies in the piglets born from sows with low antibody titers (maximum 1:50) was shorter and lasted only up to 3 weeks of age, when the piglets were weaned. The risk of horizontal transmission in piglets increased with age and was higher in piglets during the finishing period. The present results indicate that the decline of T. gondii maternally derived antibodies in naturally infected piglets is associated with the titers of their dams., ((c) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

We report three cases of tuberculosis in alpacas from Spain caused by Mycobacterium bovis. The animals revealed two different lesional patterns. Mycobacterial culture and PCR assay yielded positive results for M. bovis. Molecular typing of the isolates identified spoligotype SB0295 and identical variable-number tandem repeat (VNTR) allele sizes.

Wild felids are considered important in maintaining the sylvatic cycle of Toxoplasma gondii. Although, T. gondii antibodies have been reported in several species of wild felids, little is known of the epidemiology and risk factors associated with T. gondii infection in wild cats. The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is the most endangered felid species in the world. In the present study, seroprevalence and associated risk factors for T. gondii infection in a large population of Iberian lynx in Spain were determined. Serum samples from 129 Iberian lynx collected from 2005 to 2009 and 85 wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), sharing the habitat with the Iberian lynx, were tested for antibodies to T. gondii by the modified agglutination test (MAT) using a cut-off value of 1:25. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 81 of 129 (62.8%) Iberian lynx. Seroprevalence to T. gondii in Iberian lynx significantly increased with age (P<0.001). T. gondii seroprevalences were similar in free-ranging (66.7% of 93) and wild-caught captive lynx (69% of 84) but significantly lower in captive-born lynx (22.5% of 40). Seroprevalence was higher in lynx with concurrent Cytauxzoonfelis (88% of 25) but not with concurrent Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV) infection (53.8% of 13). There were no significant differences in seroprevalence between sexes, geographic region and year of sample collection (2005-2009). Oocysts of T. gondii were not detected microscopically in fecal samples from 58 lynx. Wild rabbits are considered the most important food for the lynx. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 14 (11.9%) of 85 rabbits tested. The present results indicate that T. gondii infection is widespread in the two areas where Iberian lynx survive in Spain. The fact that four captive-born lynx seroconverted was indication of contact with T. gondii also in the Captive Breeding Centers, hence, control measures to prevent T. gondii infection would be necessary in these centers., (Published by Elsevier B.V.)

A cross-sectional study was carried out in natural wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) populations from southern Spain to identify risk factors associated to myxoma virus infection. Blood samples from 619 wild rabbits were collected, and questionnaires which included variables related to host, disease, game management and environment were completed. A logistic regression analysis was conducted to investigate the associations between myxomatosis seropositivity (dependent variable) across 7 hunting estates and an extensive set of explanatory variables obtained from the questionnaires. The prevalence of antibodies against myxomatosis virus was 56.4% (95% CI: 52.5-60.3) and ranged between 21.4% (95% CI: 9.0-33.8) and 70.2% (95% CI: 58.3-82.1) among the different sampling areas. The logistic regression analysis showed that autumn (OR 9.0), high abundance of mosquitoes (OR 8.2), reproductive activity (OR 4.1), warren's insecticide treatment (OR 3.7), rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) seropositivity (OR 2.6), high hunting pressure (OR 6.3) and sheep presence (OR 6.4) were associated with seropositivity to myxomatosis. Based on the results, diverse management measures for myxomatosis control are proposed.

Objective: To describe the ultrasound characteristics, vascularization pattern (colour Doppler ultrasound) and possible histogenesis of one case of synchronic untesticular seminoma and teratocarcinoma as independent tumor nodules, histologically different, in a 19-year-old patient with testicular mass for eight months., Methods: Conventional ultrasound, colour Doppler ultrasound, and high resolution Doppler angiogram were performed, analyzing vascular flows. After resection of the tumor, macroscopic and histological sections were related with ultrasound images., Results: The patient showed three independent, well limited, tumoral nodules in the right testicle: two of them heterogeneous, 20 and 33 mm in diameter, with cystic areas and calcifications. The third nodule was solid, hypoechoic and homogeneous, 26 mm in diameter. All nodules presented an increase in vascularization with low resistance arterial flows. Histologically the first two nodules were teratocarcinomas (predominantly mature teratoma and embryonal carcinoma) and the third classic seminoma., Conclusions: Although seminoma and mixed germ cell tumors are common, "their presentation in the some testicle as independent nodules with different histologies is a rarely referred case in the literature, which allows us to apply a histogenetic and ultrasound-pathologic correlation model in seminomatous and nonseminomatous tumors. The presence of cystic cavities and gross calcifications is highly correlated with teratoma. In our case there are not significant differences in the vascularization pattern with Doppler ultrasound.