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Tests were conducted to determine the potential for high hydrostatic pressure (HPP) to control codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), and western cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis indifferens Curran. Apples (Malus spp.) with codling moth larvae or eggs were treated at 24 and 72 h, respectively, after infestation at a series of pressures between 14,000 and 26,000 pounds per inch2 (psi). Survivorship was determined the next day for larvae and after 10 d for eggs. Codling moth eggs were more tolerant of HPP treatment than larvae. Mortality of larvae was 97% at 22,000 psi, whereas mortality of eggs at this dose was 29% and not significantly different from the untreated controls. In a second study, no codling moth eggs hatched at any high pressure treatment between 30,000 and 80,000 psi, indicating these pressures were lethal. Various stages of western cherry fruit fly were treated at pressures from 10,000 to 45,000 psi, and survivorship was determined after 24 h. Eggs and third instars were more tolerant of HPP than the first and second instars. Mortality was 100% in western cherry fruit fly eggs and larvae at pressures > or =25,000 psi. Apple and sweet cherry quality after high pressure treatment was poor, but high pressure may have applications to control quarantine pests in other fruits.

Plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is an important apple, Malus domestica Borkh., pest that significantly hinders sustainable apple production in eastern North America. The potential for host plant resistance to plum curculio among apple germplasm has never been rigorously evaluated. Thus, studies were conducted to assess the susceptibility of a number of exotic and domestic Malus accessions housed at the USDA Plant Genetic Resources Unit (PGRU) "core" collection in Geneva, NY. Contrary to earlier published reports and promising data from a field assessment in 2005, these results suggest that there is probably little potential for genetic resistance to plum curculio among the Malus germplasm collection evaluated. More specifically, four Malus hybrid selections that have previously been released with claims of plum curculio resistance were shown to be susceptible to plum curculio attack. Because there are additional accessions housed at PGRU outside of the core collection that are currently classified as resistant, further studies are necessary to evaluate the true resistance qualities of these releases. It is also important to clarify such discrepancies in both the USDA online Germplasm Resources Information Network and in the horticultural literature. Although other Malus species exhibited some variability in fruit susceptibility, none could be classified as being truly resistant to plum curculio attack by any definition that would have relevance to commercial production and sale of apples.

The white peach scale (WPS), Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (Targioni-Tozzetti) (Homoptera: Diaspididae), is a world wide polyphagous scale insect. It is widely distributed in north of Iran, near the Caspian Sea areas, where it is the main pest of mulberry and kiwi trees. The development and fecundity of P. pentagona were examined at different temperatures and on different hosts in the laboratory. The longevity of WPS decreased with a rise in temperature. At 25 degrees C the largest number of crawlers (76.1 crawlers/female) was observed. The development time of WPS was generally longer on kiwi than mulberry or potato; fecundity was higher on potato than on other hosts, potato tubers and kiwi trees.

The study on the arthropod community structures in transgenic bollworm-resistant cotton (cv. Lumianyan 15) fields with different crop arrangement patterns showed that compared with those in mono-cultured cotton plot, there were more species of arthropod community and of phytophagous pest and natural enemy sub-communities as well as more individuals of neutral arthropods in vegetable-, fruit tree-, and peanut-cotton plots. More individuals of phytophagous pests in vegetable- and peanut-cotton plots, and natural enemies in vegetable- and fruit tree-cotton plots were observed. The arthropod community in peanut- and fruit tree-cotton plots had the highest similarity, while that in mono-cultured cotton and vegetable-cotton plots had the lowest one. The Renyi diversity index indicated that compared with mono-cultured cotton plot, vegetable-cotton plot had lower diversities of arthropod community and pest sub-community, while fruit tree- and peanut-cotton plots had higher diversities of arthropod community and natural enemy sub-community, and of arthropod community and pest sub-community diversity, respectively. It was concluded that fruit tree-cotton was a recommendable crop arrangement pattern for transgenic bollworm-resistant cotton.

In pear tree, Forficula auricularia and Forficula pubescens are considered as active predators of the pest Cacopsylla pyri, since that their dispersal characteristics are of crucial importance for biological control. We studied their movement using capture-mark-release-recapture techniques. The aim of this study was to underline a hedge effect as source of beneficials spreading through the orchard. Our results show that movements are mainly linked to the C. pyri fluctuations with a food specialisation for the two species when co-occurring.

Israeli vine growers have been reluctant to adopt the mating disruption technique for control of the European vine moth, Lobesia botrana Den. & Schiff. Since the chemically controlled honeydew moth, Cryptoblabes gnidiella Mill., coexists with the European vine moth, growers have maintained that the use of mating disruption would fail to bring about a significant reduction in pesticide use. In this study, the efficacy of mating disruption techniques against C. gnidiella was tested, as well as the effect of these methods on pesticide use and damage to clusters when the method was employed against both of the pests in wine grapes. Comparisons were made between plots treated with (1) L. botrana mating disruption pheromone, (2) L. botrana and C. gnidiella mating disruption pheromones and (3) control plots. A significant difference in the number of clusters infested with the developmental stages of the moths was seen between pheromone-treated plots and controls, while no such difference was observed between plots treated with one versus two pheromones. A similar pattern was observed in the number of insecticide applications; the greatest number of applications was used in control plots, followed by plots treated with L. botrana mating disruption pheromone and by plots treated with pheromones against both pests, in which no pesticides were applied., (Copyright (c) 2007 Society of Chemical Industry)

The aim of this study was to record and compare the occurrence of adults and immature stages of honeydew moth, Cryptoblabes gnidiella (Millière), related with grape phenology in two Pinot Noir (Vitis vinifera) vineyards in Bento Gonçalves (29 degrees 10'S 51 degrees 32'O), RS, during 2004-2005. Fortnightly, immature stages were monitored in the clusters and grapevine branches, while the adults, in delta traps baited with synthetic sex pheromone. There were significant differences in the number of individuals in different phenologic stages of vineyards. The highest catches of honeydew moth were registered in the period of dry clusters. The permanence of dry cluster after harvest, could serve as refuge for C. gnidiella immatures between seasons.

The larvicidal and ovicidal effectiveness of twelve insecticides on Grapholita lobarzewskii Nowicki was tested by dipping apples in different concentrations of the insecticides. Emamectin was the most effective larvicidal product, with an LC(50) of 0.01 mg kg(-1), closely followed by spinosad, methoxyfenozide and chlorpyrifos-methyl, with LC(50) values between 0.2 and 0.7 mg kg(-1). Products like imidacloprid, indoxacarb, phosmet and thiacloprid gave LC(50) values between 1 and 2 mg kg(-1). Lastly, chlorpyrifos-ethyl and phosalone had LC(50) values of around 4 mg kg(-1), whereas tebufenozide and diflubenzuron had almost no larvicidal effect. Most of the products tested had low ovicidal effectiveness, and only fenoxycarb and emamectin gave LC(50) values worthy of note, close to 2 mg kg(-1)., (Copyright (c) 2007 Society of Chemical Industry.)

The olive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi), is a newly invasive, significant threat to California's olive industry. As part of a classical biological control programme, Psyttalia ponerophaga (Silvestri) was imported to California from Pakistan and evaluated in quarantine. Biological parameters that would improve rearing and field-release protocols and permit comparisons to other olive fruit fly biological control agents were measured. Potential barriers to the successful establishment of P. ponerophaga, including the geographic origins of parasitoid and pest populations and constraints imposed by fruit size, were also evaluated as part of this investigation. Under insectary conditions, all larval stages except neonates were acceptable hosts. Provided a choice of host ages, the parasitoids' host-searching and oviposition preferences were a positive function of host age, with most offspring reared from hosts attacked as third instars. Immature developmental time was a negative function of tested temperatures, ranging from 25.5 to 12.4 days at 22 and 30 degrees C, respectively. Evaluation of adult longevity, at constant temperatures ranging from 15 to 34 degrees C, showed that P. ponerophaga had a broad tolerance of temperature, living from 3 to 34 days at 34 and 15 degrees C, respectively. Lifetime fecundity was 18.7 +/- 2.8 adult offspring per female, with most eggs deposited within 12 days after adult eclosion. Olive size affected parasitoid performance, with lower parasitism levels on hosts feeding in larger olives. The implications of these findings are discussed with respect to field manipulation and selection of parasitoid species for olive fruit fly biological control in California and worldwide.

This study demonstrated that fresh food produce, such as berries, sprouts, and green-leafed vegetables, sold at the retail level can contain potentially viable microsporidian spores of human-virulent species, such as Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Encephalitozoon intestinalis, and Encephalitozoon cuniculi, at quantities representing a threat of food-borne infection.

Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae), was discovered on Tahiti Island in July 1996. Eradication programs were conducted from 1997 to 2001, but failed. From 1998 to 2006, B. dorsalis was recovered from 29 different host fruit from the five Society Islands: Tahiti, Moorea, Raiatea, Tahaa, and Huahine. Analysis of coinfestation patterns by B. dorsalis, Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt), and Bactrocera kirki (Froggatt) suggested B. dorsalis had displaced these two species and become the most abundant fruit fly in coastal areas. To suppress B. dorsalis populations, a classical biological control program was initiated to introduce the natural enemy Fopius arisanus (Sonan) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) into French Polynesia from Hawaii. Wasps were released and established on Tahiti, Moorea, Raiatea, Tahaa, and Huahine Islands. In guava, Psidium guajava L., collections for Tahiti, F. arisanus parasitism of fruit flies was 2.1, 31.8, 37.5, and 51.9% for fruit collected for 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006, respectively. Based on guava collections in 2002 (before releases) and 2006 (after releases), there was a subsequent decrease in numbers of B. dorsalis, B. tryoni, and B. kirki fruit flies emerging (per kilogram of fruit) by 75.6, 79.3, and 97.9%, respectively. These increases in F. arisanus parasitism and decreases in infestation were similar for other host fruit. Establishment of F. arisanus is the most successful example of classical biological control of fruit flies in the Pacific area outside of Hawaii and serves as a model for introduction into South America, Africa, and China where species of the B. dorsalis complex are established.

Six mango, Mangifera indica L., plantations around Parakou, northern Benin, were sampled at 2-wk intervals for fruit fly damage from early April to late May in 2005. Mean damage ranged from 1 to 24% with a weaver ant, Oecophylla longinoda (Latreille), being either abundant or absent. The fruit fly complex is made up of Ceratitis spp. and Bactrocera invadens Drew et al., a new invasive species in West Africa. In 2006, Ceratitis spp. peaked twice in the late dry season in early April and early May, whereas B. invadens populations quickly increased at the onset of the rains, from mid-May onward. Exclusion experiments conducted in 2006 with 'Eldon', 'Kent', and 'Gouverneur' confirmed that at high ant abundance levels, Oecophylla significantly reduced fruit fly infestation. Although fruit fly control methods are still at an experimental stage in this part of the world, farmers who tolerated weaver ants in their orchard were rewarded by significantly better fruit quality. Conservation biological control with predatory ants such as Oecophylla in high-value tree crops has great potential for African and Asian farmers. Implications for international research for development at the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research level are discussed.

The presence of the eriophyid mite, Amrineus cocofolius Flechtmann, was confirmed in association with equatorial necrotic bands on the coconut fruit epidermis, in different growth areas in the Provinces of La Habana, Granma y Guantánamo, Cuba, from February 2003 to March 2004.

The influence of trap placement on catches of codling moth, Cydia pomonella L., was examined in a series of studies conducted in orchards treated with Isomate-C Plus sex pheromone dispensers. Mark-recapture tests with sterilized moths released along the interface of pairs of treated and untreated apple and pear plots found that significantly more male but not female moths were recaptured on interception traps placed in the treated plots. In a second test, significantly higher numbers of wild male and female moths were caught on interception traps placed in treated versus untreated plots within a heavily infested orchard. The highest numbers of male moths were caught on traps placed along the interior edge of the treated plots. Trap position had no influence on the captures of female moths. In a third test, north-south transects of sex pheromone-baited traps were placed through adjacent treated and untreated plots that received a uniform release of sterilized moths. Traps on the upwind edge of the treated plots caught similar numbers of moths as traps upwind from the treated plots. Moth catch was significantly reduced at all other locations inside versus outside of the treated plots, including traps placed on the downwind edge of the treated plot. In a fourth test, five apple orchards were monitored with groups of sex pheromone-baited traps placed either on the border or at three distances inside the orchards. The highest moth counts were in traps placed at the border, and the lowest moth counts were in traps placed 30 and 50 m from the border. In a fifth test, the proportion of traps failing to catch any moths despite the occurrence of local fruit injury was significantly higher in traps placed 50 versus 25 m from the border. The implications provided by these data for designing an effective monitoring program for codling moth in sex pheromone-treated orchards are discussed.

Demethyloleuropein plays a major role in the defense mechanism of olive fruits. To understand how this molecule is metabolized during different stages of maturation of olive fruits, a biomolecular approach to identify the demethyloleuropein chemistry was employed. The beta-glucosidase activity in crude extracts was assayed spectrophotometrically using the chromogenic substrate p-nitrophenyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside. Demethyloleuropein was extracted and identified by HPLC-MS from both infected and uninfected olive fruits at different physiological stages. The release of more functionally relevant dialdehydes in uninfected fruits was investigated using ESIMS/ MS. In fruits harvested in October, the activity of beta-glucosidase was significantly enhanced in uninfected fruits when compared to the infected fruits. Quantitative differences in the demethyloleuropein content from uninfected fruits showed the highest values (5.09 mg/g) in October, whereas lower levels (4.44 mg/g) were found in infected fruits. The results demonstrated that demethyloleuropein derivatives could be influenced by beta-glucosidase activity to improve the quality of the olive products with the best dialdehyde nutraceutical content.

Binomial sampling based on the proportion of samples infested was investigated for estimating mean densities of citrus rust mite, Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Ashmead), and Aculops pelekassi (Keifer) (Acari: Eriophyidae), on oranges, Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck. Data for the investigation were obtained by counting the number of motile mites within 600 sample units (each unit a 1-cm2 surface area per fruit) across a 4-ha block of trees (32 blocks total): five areas per 4 ha, five trees per area, 12 fruit per tree, and two samples per fruit. A significant (r2 = 0.89), linear relationship was found between ln(-ln(1 -Po)) and ln(mean), where P0 is the proportion of samples with more than zero mites. The fitted binomial parameters adequately described a validation data set from a sampling plan consisting of 192 samples. Projections indicated the fitted parameters would apply to sampling plans with as few as 48 samples, but reducing sample size resulted in an increase of bootstrap estimates falling outside expected confidence limits. Although mite count data fit the binomial model, confidence limits for mean arithmetic predictions increased dramatically as proportion of samples infested increased. Binomial sampling using a tally threshold of 0 therefore has less value when proportions of samples infested are large. Increasing the tally threshold to two mites marginally improved estimates at larger densities. Overall, binomial sampling for a general estimate of mite densities seemed to be a viable alternative to absolute counts of mites per sample for a grower using a low management threshold such as two or three mites per sample.

Feeding trials were conducted on three (young, mid-fill and mature) developmental stages of cowpea Vigna unguiculata ssp. unguiculata pods in the screenhouse using fourth instar nymphs and adults of Anoplocnemis curvipes (Fabricius), Riptortus dentipes (Fabricius), Mirperus jaculus (Thunberg), Clavigralla tomentosicollis Stål and C. shadabi Dolling. Anoplocnemis curvipes was observed to be the most damaging coreoid species causing a yield reduction of 26.4-51.7% followed by R. dentipes (24.4-29.4%), M. jaculus (21.9-26.9%), C. tomentosicollis (17.9-22.4%) and C. shadabi (15.9-20.4%). The fourth instar nymphs of each pod-sucking bug species caused a significantly higher cowpea yield reduction than their respective adults. Similarly, infestation on young pods compared to mid-fill and mature stages resulted in significantly higher yield reduction. The results suggest that infestation levels of two fourth instar nymphs of A. curvipes or three fourth instar nymphs of the other four pod-sucking bug species per young pod should be adequate for screening of cowpea varieties for resistance to the coreoid bugs.

This research was performed in order to examine helminth contaminated wastewaters used in agriculture in Afyonkarahisar. Ten rural areas were selected that used water for agricultural purposes from a creek contaminated with human and animal wastes. Between September 2004 and August 2005, these areas were visited once every two weeks, and a total of 240 water samples were collected. Out of untreated water samples, 32 samples (26.70%) had helminth eggs, whereas there were neither helminths nor developmental stages of helminths (p < 0.001) in treated water samples. Cestode eggs were seen in 10.00% of untreated water samples and nematode eggs were seen in 16.70%. Out of the helminth eggs, 13 (40.60%) were hookworm eggs; 6 (18.75%), Taenia spp.; 5 (5.60%), Ascaris lumbricoides; 3 (9.40%), Hymenolepis diminuta; 3 (9.40%), H. nana; and 2 (6.25%), Toxocara spp. In conclusion; the creek was found to be contaminated by helminths originating from human and animal wastes in Afyonkarahisar. This type of water presents a risk for human and animal health and contaminated waters, therefore, should be avoided in irrigation of vegetables and fruit consumed raw.

Being minute in size, eriophyoid mites can reach places that are small enough to be inaccessible to their predators. The coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis, is a typical example; it finds partial refuge under the perianth of the coconut fruit. However, some predators can move under the perianth of the coconut fruits and attack the coconut mite. In Sri Lanka, the phytoseiid mite Neoseiulus baraki, is the most common predatory mite found in association with the coconut mite. The cross-diameter of this predatory mite is c. 3 times larger than that of the coconut mite. Nevertheless, taking this predator's flat body and elongated idiosoma into account, it is--relative to many other phytoseiid mites--better able to reach the narrow space under the perianth of infested coconut fruits. On uninfested coconut fruits, however, they are hardly ever observed under the perianth. Prompted by earlier work on the accessibility of tulip bulbs to another eriophyoid mite and its predators, we hypothesized that the structure of the coconut fruit perianth is changed in response to damage by eriophyoid mites and as a result predatory mites are better able to enter under the perianth of infested coconut fruits. This was tested in an experiment where we measured the gap between the rim of the perianth and the coconut fruit surface in three cultivars ('Sri Lanka Tall', 'Sri Lanka Dwarf Green' and 'Sri Lanka Dwarf Green x Sri Lanka Tall' hybrid) that are cultivated extensively in Sri Lanka. It was found that the perianth-fruit gap in uninfested coconut fruits was significantly different between cultivars: the cultivar 'Sri Lanka Dwarf Green' with its smaller and more elongated coconut fruits had a larger perianth-fruit gap. In the uninfested coconut fruits this gap was large enough for the coconut mite to creep under the perianth, yet too small for its predator N. baraki. However, when the coconut fruits were infested by coconut mites, the perianth-rim-fruit gap was not different among cultivars and had increased to such an extent that the space under the perianth became accessible to the predatory mites.

Like in most parts of the world, the codling moth, Cydia pomonello (L.), is one of the most important pests in apple orchards in the Romanian Banat region. There, the control of this pest is often inadequate and the damage and economic losses are therefore enormous. This lack of control is caused by structural problems such as the absence of an advanced distribution network for phytopharmaceutical products, obsolete spraying equipment and the insufficient exchange of knowledge and expertise of those products and the pest itself between the local research facilities and the apple growers. The purpose of this research project is rather demonstrative, because a change in the Romanian pome culture's attitude is urgently needed. Pheromone trapping and the computerized population model RIMpro Cydia, which predicts important phenological events such as adult flight and egg hatch, were used to determine the optimal spray timing. These modern pest management techniques would not only minimize pressure on the environment, but also on the income of the Romanian apple grower, for whom phytopharmaceuticals are a high-priced investment. In July 2006 a comparative study between the supervised pest control program using Calypso, Runner and Reldan, all easily obtainable and commercially available insecticides in the region, and a conventional Romanian management programme was conducted. The control plot and the two test plots were all three located in a high codling moth pressure orchard in Timişoara. In the control plot 9,44 % of the fruits were damaged by codling moth larvae. In the plot containing the trees that were treated according to the traditional Romanian management programme 5,56 % damage was recorded, while the supervised management plot showed only 1,1% damage. Additionally damage was measured in another orchard in Periam, about 60 km away from the other plots. There, an intensive control program using Reldan, Calypso, Actare, Karate and Insegar was applied and damage measured only 0.2%. While at first glance that approach seems most efficient, it has to be noticed that it used twice as much insecticide treatments as were used in the supervised control program. Furthermore, 1 % damage is suggested by most references as being the economical threshold for treatments. The results of this comparative study clearly show that supervised codling moth control proofs to be the most profitable. Starting from August the same year, all of the control programmes in Timişoara were stopped. Therefore the second and possibly the third generation of codling moth larvae could develop freely. In the plot which was earlier sprayed according to the warnings of RIMpro Cydia and the pheromone trap this resulted in 27.5% damaged fruits during harvest in September. In the control plot damage reached 60.95%. These results highlight the necessity of the development of an efficient codling moth control program. Once that program is fine-tuned it should be presented to the local apple growers in order to give the Romanian pome culture a boost.

A mating disruption approach using high densities of pheromone dispensers, has been recently proposed for codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), and oriental fruit moth, Cydia molesta (Busck.), (Lepidoptera Tortricidae), control. Ecodian Star dispensers, made of low-cost biodegradable material and easy to apply, were formulated with 10 mg of codlemone (E8,E10-12OH) and 10 mg of grapamone (Z8-12OH) and placed at a rate of 1,400-2,000 dispensers/ha. The pheromone release rates from new and field aged dispensers were evaluated by hexane extraction of the residual attractant (indirectly) and gas-chromatographic analysis. The release rate of field-aged dispensers decreased over time with a good linearity; they released a significant amount of synthetic sex pheromones over the entire season. Dispensers elicited close-range approaches of codling moth males in wind tunnel irrespective of their age. Field trials carried out from 2003 to 2004 confirmed the efficacy of Ecodian Star dispensers for codling moth and oriental fruit moth control, regardless the size of the treated area. Our results demonstrate that Ecodian dispensers achieved a good level of activity and longevity over the season. The potential of this strategy for the control of the moths is discussed.

The eriophyoid mite Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Eriophyidae), commonly called the coconut mite, is a key pest of coconut fruits. Surveys conducted on coconut palms in Brazil revealed the predatory mites Neoseiulus paspalivorus DeLeon (Phytoseiidae) and Proctolaelaps bickleyi Bram (Ascidae) as the most commonly associated natural enemies of A. guerreronis on coconut fruits. However, virtually nothing is known about the life history of these two predators. We conducted laboratory experiments at 25 +/- 0.1 degrees C, 70-90% RH and 12:12 h L:D photoperiod to determine the life history characteristics of the two predatory mites when feeding on A. guerreronis and other potential food sources present on coconut fruits such as Steneotarsonemus furcatus DeLeon (Tarsonemidae), coconut pollen and the fungus Rhizopus cf. stolonifer Lind (Mucoraceae). In addition, the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch (Tetranychidae) was tested for its suitability as prey. Both predators, N. paspalivorus and P. bickleyi, thrived on A. guerreronis as primary food source resulting in shorter developmental time (5.6 and 4.4 days, respectively), higher oviposition rate (1.7 and 7.0 eggs/female/day, respectively) and higher intrinsic rate of increase (0.232 and 0.489 per female/day, respectively) than on any other diet but were unable to develop or lay eggs when fed T. urticae. Coconut pollen and S. furcatus were adequate alternative food sources for N. paspalivorus and Rhizopus for P. bickleyi. We discuss the relevance of our findings for natural and biological control of the coconut mite A. guerreronis.

In the Russian Federation (RF), ascariasis remains to be the most common geohelminthiasis, in children in particular. With its overall reduction, the prevalence of ascariasis is very uneven on the RF territory. In the past 15 years, from 1991 to 2004, there was a steady-state decrease in the incidence of ascariasis from 79.5 to 46.0 per 100,000. Its incidence rates remained higher than the average Russian ones in 33 RF subjects and lower than those in 48 subjects and began reducing in 8 subjects in the past 4 years. Of the 33 RF subjects wherein the incidence rates were constantly greater than the average Russian ones, 27 subjects are located in the natural background-favorable areas. In the past 15 years, there was an increase in the impact of socioeconomic factors on the higher incidence of ascariasis: the population's migration; the delivery and transport of Ascaris egg-contaminated greens, vegetables, berries; the development of hothouse gardening, and, as a result, the occurrence of ascariasis in the northern areas of the country, as well as the use of discharged waters for soil fertilization to grow crops. The territory of Russia was first epidemiologically districted in the context of ascariasis, by taking into account the natural background and socioeconomic factors. The area of ascariasis is on the rise. In all RF subjects, public health and social security bodies should constantly keep in mind the problem in ascariasis control and prevention.

Two high-temperature, forced air treatments under controlled atmosphere conditions, called CATTS for controlled atmosphere/temperature treatment system, were developed for control of all life stages of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), and oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), infesting peaches and nectarines (both Prunus spp.). These treatments were used in efficacy and confirmation tests to kill > 5,000 fourth instar oriental fruit moths and > 30,000 fourth instar codling moths with zero survivors. The treatments consist of linear heating rates of either 12 or 24 degrees C/h to a final chamber temperature under a 1% O2, 15% CO2, and > 90% RH atmosphere with air speed between 1.2 and 2.0 m/s. At a 12 degrees C linear chamber heating rate, treatment takes approximately 3 h to reach a final chamber temperature of 46 degrees C. The average lowest core temperatures of the fruit reached 43.8 degrees C within the last 30 min of the treatment. At a 24 degrees C linear chamber heating rate, it takes approximately 2.5 h to reach a final chamber temperature of 46 degrees C. The average lowest core temperatures of the fruit reached 44.6 degrees C for the last 15 min of the treatment. It also was determined that both treatments did not significantly alter the quality parameters that were evaluated to a degree that would have negatively influenced the marketability of the fruit. Positive benefits of treatment included a slower ripening of treated fruit and an inhibition of the loss of juiciness during storage in some cultivars. These treatments may be used to replacement to methyl bromide fumigation for conventional fruit or as a new treatment for organic fruit contingent upon importing country approval.

The Chinese citrus fruit fly, Bactrocera (Tetradacus) minax (Enderlein), is one of the major citrus pests in Bhutan and can cause >50% mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) fruit drop. As part of the development of a management strategy for the fly in mandarin orchards, population monitoring and experimental manipulations were carried out to determine: (i) adult emergence period; (ii) adult phenology patterns; (iii) period of crop susceptibility; and (iv) period from fruit drop to pupation. In western Bhutan, adult flies emerge from the overwintering pupal stage in late April/early May. Most flies are mature by the end of May and it is inferred that mating occurs at this time: from the beginning of June males rapidly disappear from the population and by mid- to late June are rare or absent from traps. Mature females are present in the mandarin crop at the beginning of June, but very little oviposition occurs until mid-June, while most damage has occurred by mid-July. Initiation of oviposition into mandarins is almost certainly linked to crop phenology. Adult flies disappear from the orchard system during August. After fruit drop, larvae were recorded leaving the fruit to pupate within 13 days. The use of early to mid-season protein bait sprays and/or targeted use of systemic insecticides during the one month oviposition period, plus the removal of fallen fruit once every 10 days, are recommended as control strategies.

Codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), and oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), are serious pests of apples (Malus spp.) grown in the United States and other countries. In countries where these species are not found, there are strict quarantine restrictions in place to prevent their accidental introduction. The treatment used in this study consisted of hot, forced, moist air with a linear heating rate of 12 degrees C/h to a final chamber temperature of 46 degrees C under a 1% oxygen and 15% carbon dioxide environment. We found that the fourth instar of both species was the most tolerant to the treatment, with equal tolerance between the species. Efficacy tests against the fourth instar of both oriental fruit moth and codling moth by using a commercial controlled atmosphere temperature treatment system chamber resulted in > 5,000 individuals of each species being controlled using the combination treatment. Confirmation tests against codling moth resulted in mortality of > 30,000 fourth instars. These treatments may be used to meet quarantine restrictions for organic apples where fumigation with methyl bromide is not desirable.

Treating Mexican grapefruit with gibberellic acid (GA3) before color break, significantly delayed peel color change and increased peel puncture resistance, but it did not reduce grapefruit susceptibility to Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens (Loew) attack under natural conditions. Despite GA3 treatments, larval infestation levels increased with higher fruit fly populations, which also increased as the season progressed. Late in the season, infestation levels were even higher in GA3-treated fruit compared with untreated fruit, possibly because treated fruit were in better condition at that stage. Egg clutch size was significantly greater in very unripe, hard, GA3-treated fruit at the beginning of the harvest season and in December, compared with control fruit. Under laboratory conditions, egg injection into different regions of the fruit suggested that A. ludens eggs are intoxicated by peel oil content in the flavedo region. However, A. ludens' long aculeus allows females to oviposit eggs deeper into the peel (i.e., albedo), avoiding toxic essential oils in the flavedo. This makes A. ludens a particularly difficult species to control compared with other citrus-infesting species such as Anastrepha suspensa (Loew), Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann), and Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (fly species with significantly shorter aculei), which can be effectively managed with GA3 sprays. We discuss our findings in light of their practical implications and with respect to the oviposition behavior of various fruit flies attacking citrus.

Studies were designed to examine the effects of host plants on oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), survival. G. molesta larval survival in the orchard was comparable between apple (Malus spp.) and peach (Prunus spp.) shoots, indicating that both host species can harbor large larval populations during the early season. G. molesta larvae used multiple shoots for feeding and development on peaches but usually only damaged single shoots in apple. Survival differences were present between peach and apple fruit, but this survival was affected by fruit maturity level. Generally, larval survival higher was in ripening peach fruit than in green, immature apple fruit. Larval survival varied among several apple cultivars, indicating that cultivar-level variability needs to be considered. These host-associated effects may impact efforts to predictively model G. molesta populations in commercial orchards where multiple host plant species, or different cultivars of the same species are often grown in proximity. Thus, host-associated dynamics should be included into future population models that underlie management programs.

Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) is an important pest of clementine mandarins, Citrus reticulata Blanco, in Spain. As a first step toward the development of an integrated crop management program for clementines, dispersion patterns of T. urticae females were determined for different types of leaves and fruit. The study was carried out between 2001 and 2003 in different commercial clementine orchards in the provinces of Castelló and Tarragona (northeastern Spain). We found that symptomatic leaves (those exhibiting typical chlorotic spots) harbored 57.1% of the total mite counts. Furthermore, these leaves were representative of mite dynamics on other leaf types. Therefore, symptomatic leaves were selected as a sampling unit. Dispersion patterns generated by Taylor's power law demonstrated the occurrence of aggregated patterns of spatial distribution (b > 1.21) on both leaves and fruit. Based on these results, the incidence (proportion of infested samples) and mean density relationship were developed. We found that optimal binomial sample sizes for estimating low populations of T. urticae on leaves (up to 0.2 female per leaf) were very large. Therefore, enumerative sampling would be more reliable within this range of T. urticae densities. However, binomial sampling was the only valid method for estimating mite density on fruit.

Beauveria bassiana is an entomopathogen widely used to control the coffee berry borer in Colombia, as part of an Integrated Pest Management strategy. Traditionally, the development of fungal insect pathogens as biocontrol agents in crop pests has been oriented towards the selection and formulation of elite clonal strains. Instead, we explored the potential application of genetic diversity in B. bassiana by determining the effect of strain mixtures on coffee berry borer mortality compared to clonal isolates. Genomic DNA from 11 strains was characterized using internal transcribed spacers and beta-tubulin sequences as well as amplified fragment length polymorphism markers. Cluster analysis produced three genetic groups and confirmed the low but significant intraspecific genetic diversity present among the strains. Single strain virulence towards the coffee berry borer under laboratory conditions, using 1x10(6) conidia ml(-1), ranged between 89.9 and 57.5%. All the inoculations with mixtures resulted in coinfection events. Combinations of genetically similar strains showed no significant differences when their virulences were compared. However, mixtures of genetically different strains led to both antagonism and synergism. The lowest virulence percentage (57%) was obtained by putting together the most virulent strain of each group, contrary to the highest virulence percentage (93%) that resulted from mixing the three least virulent strains. The results indicate the promising potential of designing strain mixtures as an alternative for the biocontrol of Hypothenemus hampei and other pests and provide tools for the understanding of the ecological dynamics of entomopathogen populations under natural conditions.

Development of Epipyas postvittna (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), on leaves and fruit of 'Valencia', 'Washington navel', and 'Navelina' orange trees was studied under constant and fluctuating temperatures. E. postvittna was able to complete its life cycle feeding exclusively on leaves or fruit of orange trees. However, larval survival rate was very low (< 20%) on orange tissues compared with that on noncitrus hosts. Among the four types of orange tissues, young orange leaves and fruit afforded larvae higher survival rates than mature orange leaves and fruit. Fruit (young or mature) produced heavier pupae than leaves (young or mature). Larvae developed more slowly on mature orange fruit than on other orange materials and more slowly on orange leaves than on leaves of most noncitrus hosts. Degree-day accumulations based on the fastest developmental rates obtained in this study suggested that E. postvittna is capable of completing 4.4-4.7 generations per year in orange orchards in the Riverina region of New South Wales, Australia. Implications of the results in the management of the insect in citrus are discussed.

We report the results of interlaboratory collaborative trials of methods to detect oocysts of the protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum on lettuce and raspberries. The trials involved eight expert laboratories in the United Kingdom. Samples comprised 30 g lettuce, and 60 g raspberries. Lettuce samples were artificially contaminated at three levels: low (8.5-14.2 oocysts), medium (53.5-62.6 oocysts), and high (111.3-135.0 oocysts). Non-contaminated lettuce samples were also tested. The method had an overall sensitivity (correct identification of all artificially contaminated lettuce samples) of 89.6%, and a specificity (correct identification of non-contaminated samples) of 85.4%. The total median percentage recovery (from all artificially contaminated samples) produced by the method was 30.4%. The method was just as reproducible between laboratories, as repeatable within a laboratory. Raspberry samples were artificially contaminated at three levels: low (8.5-26.8 oocysts), medium (29.7-65.7 oocysts), and high (53.9-131.3 oocysts). Non-contaminated raspberry samples were also tested. The method had an overall sensitivity (correct identification of all artificially contaminated raspberry samples) of 95.8%, and a specificity (correct identification of non-contaminated samples) of 83.3%. The total median percentage recovery (from all artificially contaminated samples) produced by the method was 44.3%. The method was just as reproducible between laboratories, as repeatable within a laboratory. The results of the collaborative trial indicate that these assays can be used effectively in analytical microbiological laboratories.

No standard method is available for detecting protozoan parasites on foods such as soft fruit and salad vegetables. We report on optimizing methods for detecting Cryptosporidium parvum on lettuce and raspberries. These methods are based on four basic stages: extraction of oocysts from the foodstuffs, concentration of the extract and separation of the oocysts from food materials, staining of the oocysts to allow their visualization, and identification of oocysts by microscopy. The concentration and separation steps are performed by centrifugation, followed by immunomagnetic separation using proprietary kits. Oocyst staining is also performed using proprietary reagents. The performance parameters of the extraction steps were extensively optimized, using artificially contaminated samples. The fully developed methods were tested several times to determine their reliability. The method to detect C. parvum on lettuce recovered 59.0+/-12.0% (n=30) of artificially contaminated oocysts. The method to detect C. parvum on raspberries recovered 41.0+/-13.0% (n=30) of artificially contaminated oocysts.

In the last decade, a major concern for the scientific community has been whether infected animals can serve as reservoirs of Giardia and Cryptosporidium infection for humans. Worldwide, prevalence studies and molecular tools have provided insights into the taxonomy and epidemiology of these protozoa in order to better understand such a relation. This paper presents data on the prevalence and molecular genotyping studies from several sample types from land to sea (humans, companion animals, sheep, cattle, goats, wastewaters, surface water, and shellfish) available in Italy. The contribution of Italian researchers to the international debate on the veterinary significance of these infections and their impact on public health is highlighted and the main objectives to be pursued in the future depicted.

Herbivores may enhance plant recruitment, but such positive interactions may be overlooked in favour of obvious negative effects of herbivory on propagules. My objective was to determine whether larval insects that feed and develop within fruit of the mangrove Avicennia marina act as mutualist herbivores by increasing the dispersal of propagules without affecting their viability and emerging successfully as adults following dispersal of the propagule by water. Surveys revealed that frugivory is common throughout the mangrove forest, and fruit had up to six exit holes where larvae had emerged as adults. Larval insects did not affect the flotation of propagules with pericarps, a thin structure that provides buoyancy for dispersal by water. In contrast, after simulating germination by removing the pericarp, the majority of propagules with three exit holes floated on average for 20 h longer than those without exit holes, which sank immediately. Based on this evidence that frugivory could increase the dispersal potential of propagules, I predicted that propagules consumed by larval insects should disperse farther than undamaged propagules, and this was tested by quantifying the potential viability of propagules stranded on beaches at increasing distances (up to 20 km) from mangrove forests. Flies and moths emerged as adults after being transported tens of kilometres within mangrove propagules, revealing a novel mode of dispersal. Proportionally fewer potentially viable propagules were supplied to beaches at increasing distances from mangrove forests, however, indicating that larval insects negatively affect recruitment and are thus not acting as mutualist herbivores. Nevertheless, when transported back to the mangrove forest, seedlings established from propagules damaged by larval insects and stranded on beaches. Therefore, although frugivory does not preclude mangrove recruitment, its negative effects in the pre-dispersal environment may be intensified with increasing dispersal distance, thus limiting the long-distance supply of propagules and recruitment of mangroves.

Falling of berries bored by Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) may be the major loosing factor during the fruiting period. However, only those bored berries which remain in the soil surface before a new yielding period have been recognized as responsible for the damage level Ho achieved by new developing berries. In this paper, we investigated in the plants and in the soil surface, the presence of Coffea canephora cv. Conilon berries bored by H. hampei during the yielding period in Ouro Preto d'Oeste, Rondônia, Brazil. We took samples, weekly, from December 2000 to June 2001. The data were submitted to the Surviving Regression Analysis, based on a censored Weibull model. During the yielding period, berries fall down continuously and, in average, the proportion of H. hampei bored berries was 4 to 20 times higher in the soil (P < 2,3 x 10-18, n = 62,747) than in the plants. Thus, we argue that adding the "soil environment" to the integrated management strategies could point to new technologies for the control of this insect.

Three large-scale mating disruption (MD) trials were conducted from 2001 to 2004 in an organic citrus orchard in inland southeastern Australia to evaluate the effectiveness of the MD dispenser Isomate LBAM Plus in controlling lightbrown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), in citrus. At the application rate of 364-728 dispensers per ha, the dispensers reduced pheromone trapping of E. postvittana to almost undetectable levels for approximately 6 mo in the treated area. During this period, most sentinel females in the treated area failed to mate. Infestation by E. postvittana in the treated area was reduced by >50%. If distributed in citrus orchards in late winter (August), the dispensers can be expected to remain effective until next February in southeastern Australia, covering the period when most fruit scarring caused by its larvae occurs.

The effectiveness of inoculative releases of the mirid predator Dicyphus hesperus Knight for control of Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) on greenhouse tomatoes was evaluated in terms of suppression of the population densities of F. occidentalis and associated fruit damage in the presence of the predator over two seasonal trials. An inoculative release of one D. hesperus per plant (approximately 0.1:10 predator:prey ratio) at a high F. occidentalis population density (140 thrips per plant) suppressed the thrips population density to a significantly lower level, compared with the nonrelease greenhouse, but not below a thrips level that caused economic fruit damage. As the predator:prey ratio increased to approximately 0.5:10 D. hesperus:F. occidentalis, the mean percentage of the thrips-damaged fruit in the D. hesperus release greenhouse decreased to 1.6%. However, the amount of fruit feeding by D. hesperus was highly correlated to the availability of prey (or predator:prey ratio) under greenhouse conditions. D. hesperus-induced fruit damage occurred when the predator:prey ratio was >1:10 D. hesperus:F. occidentalis. Considering the potential risk of fruit damage by D. hesperus and the need for effective control of F. occidentalis, a 0.5-1:10 D. hesperus:F. occidentalis ratio is recommended when the thrips population density is in the range of 60-150 thrips per plant.

The Oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) has become a pest of tree fruits since its introduction to the United States in the early twentieth century. Oriental fruit moth has historically been a major pest problem in peach production, and outbreaks in commercial apple (Malus spp.) orchards in the eastern United States were rare until the late 1990s. Recent outbreaks in Mid-Atlantic apple orchards have lead researchers to investigate host-associated effects on oriental fruit moth biology, behavior, and population dynamics. Studies were designed to assess cultivar level effects in apples on oviposition and larval feeding behavior of oriental fruit moth. In a mixed cultivar apple orchard, total oriental fruit moth oviposition and oviposition site preferences varied between cultivars. These preferences also varied over time, when sampling was repeated at various times of the growing season. Although most adult female oriental fruit moth preferentially oviposited in the calyx and stem areas of apple fruit, noticeable numbers of eggs also were laid on the sides of fruit, contradicting some previous reports. Oriental fruit moth females exhibited a strong ovipositional preference for fruit that were previously damaged by oriental fruit moth or codling moth, Cydia ponmonella (L.). The majority of newly hatched oriental fruit moth larvae were observed to spend <24 h on the surface of apple fruit before entry, and this behavior was observed on several apple cultivars. Neonate larvae exhibited a preference for entering fruit at either the stem or calyx ends, regardless of their initial site of placement. Our findings underscore the importance of adequate spray coverage and accurate timing of insecticide applications targeting oriental fruit moth.

Two new yeast species, Cryptococcus bestiolae and Cryptococcus dejecticola, were discovered in the frass of the litchi fruit borer Conopomorpha sinensis Bradley. The yeasts utilize inositol, hydrolyze urea, produce starch-like substance, and contain CoQ10. Phylogenetic analyses of D1/D2 26S rDNA and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences indicate that the yeasts are closely related to Bullera dendrophila and an undescribed species of Cryptococcus (strain CBS 8507). The two new species differed from each other by 17 nucleotides in the D1/D2 region and by 68 nucleotides in the ITS region. Cryptococcus bestiolae is a sister species to Cryptococcus sp. CBS 8507, from which it differs by eight nucleotides in the D1/D2 region and 59 nucleotides in the ITS region. Cryptococcus dejecticola and B. dendrophila differed by 13 nucleotides in the D1/D2 and 57 nucleotides in the ITS region. Cryptococcus bestiolae and Cr. dejecticola formed with B. dendrophila a well defined clade consisting of insect associated species. The type strain of Cr. bestiolae is TH3.2.59 (=CBS 10118=NRRL Y-27894), and the type strain of Cr. dejecticola is Litch 17 (=CBS 10117=NRRL Y-27898).

A study was done to determine if a free-living, bacterivorous nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, migrates to bovine manure, turkey manure, composted bovine manure, composted turkey manure, and manure-amended soil inoculated with Salmonella Newport. Movement of the worm to lettuce, strawberries, and carrots was also studied. C. elegans moved most rapidly to turkey manure and strawberries, with 35% and 60% of worms, respectively, associating with samples within 30 min. Survival and reproduction of C. elegans in test materials were not affected by the presence of S. newport. Bovine manure and bovine manure compost inoculated with S. newport (8.6 log10 CFU/g) were separately placed in the bottom of a glass jar and covered with a layer of soil (5 cm) inoculated (50 worms/g) or not inoculated with C. elegans. A piece of lettuce, strawberry, or carrot was placed on top of the soil before jars were sealed and held at 20 degrees C for up to 10 days. In the system using soil inoculated with C. elegans, S. newport initially in bovine manure was detected on the surface of lettuce, strawberry, and carrot samples within 3, 1, and 1 days, respectively. The pathogen was detected on lettuce, strawberry, and carrot within 1, 7, and 1 days, respectively, when initially present in bovine manure compost. With one exception, the pathogen was not detected on the produce over the 10-day incubation period when C. elegans was not present in the soil. Results indicate that C. elegans has the potential for transporting S. newport in soil to the surface of preharvest fruits and vegetables in contact with soil.

Five mealybug (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) plant pest species: Dysmicoccus grassii (Leonardi), Ferrisia malvastra (McDaniel), Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell), Phenacoccus tucumanus Granara de Willink, and Pseudococcus elisae Borchsenius are recorded for the first time in the state of Espírito Santo, Brazil. These are the first records of D. grassii in Brazil, from papaya (Carica papaya, Caricaceae), and from coffee (Coffea canephora, Rubiaceae). Ferrisia malvastra is also newly recorded in Brazil, where it was found on Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae). Ferrisia virgata was collected from an unidentified weed and Phenacoccus tucumanus from Citrus sp. (Rutaceae). Plotococcus capixaba Kondo was found on pitanga ( Eugenia cf. pitanga, Myrtaceae) and Pseudococcus elisae on Coffea canephora , which are new host records for these mealybugs.

Locally-produced clear plastic water traps (12 cm x 14 cm base and 21 cm height) were optimized for use in large-scale mass trapping trials for control of brinjal fruit and shoot borer, Leucinodes orbonalis Guenée. Changing the shape (square and triangular) and number (two and four) of entry holes in the water trap had no significant effect on trap catch. Significantly more male moths were caught in traps treated with water containing powdered detergent than liquid detergent, light gear oil or insecticide. All water traps tested caught significantly higher numbers of moths than sticky delta traps with open sides under farmers' field conditions. Trap catches per 100 m2 were found to increase with increasing number of traps from 3 to 6 but the difference in catch between 4 and 6 traps per 100 m2 was not significant. Two small-scale replicated integrated pest management (IPM) trials were conducted consisting of the optimized water trap placed out with 10 m spacing (4 per 100 m2) and infested shoots pruned and destroyed. The first season trial had two treatments, IPM and farmers' practice in which farmers applied insecticide every two days in the peak harvest period. Overall, the percentage of healthy fruit and yields in both treatments were comparable at 53.8 and 49.6% and 20 and 19.4 tonnes per ha in the IPM and farmers' practice plots respectively. However, the initial infestations in the IPM plots (68%) were significantly higher than in farmers' practice plots (16%) due to the proximity of the nurseries used for the IPM plots to stacks of brinjal crop residues from the previous season that acted as a source of infestation. The second season's trials contained a third treatment in which IPM and farmers' practice were combined. The percent total healthy fruits harvested were 46.1, 58.6 and 69.1% respectively for the farmers' practice, farmers' practice plus IPM and IPM alone. Averaged total fruit yields were approximately 12 tonnes per ha for the farmers' practice plots and 30 tonnes per ha for each of the IPM-treated plots. The IPM plot had significantly fewer infested fruit than the IPM plus farmers practice plots and this was attributed to the activity of the larval parasitoid Trathala flavo-orbitalis (Cameron) that was suppressed in trial plots treated with insecticides.

The effect of radiation dose and different release ratios of treated (T) to untreated (U) Cryptophlebia leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), on the incidence of fruit damage, the competitiveness of the treated males, and population growth was examined inside field cages. Navel orange trees were individually enclosed in large nylon mesh cages. Newly emerged adult moths treated with either 150 or 200 Gy of gamma radiation were released into the cages at ratios of 5T:1U or 10T:1U. The fruit was collected after 4 wk, and the number of damaged fruit and larval entries per cage were recorded for each treatment. Infested fruit was maintained in the laboratory until all emerging F1 progeny were collected and outcrossed to untreated moths of the opposite sex. Treatment had a significant effect on the mean number of larval entries and on the number of undamaged fruit per cage. The number of larval entries as well as the number of F1 progeny per cage decreased as the overflooding ratio increased. A significant reduction in egg hatch was observed in the progeny of crosses between F1 females or F1 males originating from the treatment cages compared with crosses of F1 moths originating from the control cages. The lowest mean number of fertile F1 adult females and males was obtained from the 150 Gy and 10T:1U ratio treatment. This treatment also showed the lowest per generation rate of increase (< 1 from the parental [P1] to the F1 generation), suggesting that growth in the fertile population would have been prevented if releases of treated moths at this dose and ratio were maintained in the field.

Fruit bins infested with diapausing codling moth larvae, Cydia pomonella (L.), are a potential source of reinfestation of orchards and may jeopardize the success of mating disruption programs and other control strategies. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) were tested as a potential means of control that could be applied at the time bins are submerged in dump tanks. Diapausing cocooned codling moth larvae in miniature fruit bins were highly susceptible to infective juveniles (IJs) of Steinernema carpocapsae (Weiser) and Steinernema feltiae (Filipjev) in a series of experiments. Cocooned larvae are significantly more susceptible to infection than are pupae. Experimental treatment of bins in suspensions of laboratory produced S. feltiae ranging from 10 to 100 IJs/ml of water with wetting agent (Silwet L77) resulted in 51-92% mortality. The use of adjuvants to increase penetration of hibernacula and retard desiccation of S. feltiae in fruit bins resulted in improved efficacy. The combination of a wetting agent (Silwet L77) and humectant (Stockosorb) with 10 S. feltiae IJs/ml in low and high humidity resulted in 92-95% mortality of cocooned codling moth larvae versus 46-57% mortality at the same IJ concentration without adjuvants. Immersion of infested bins in suspensions of commercially produced nematodes ranging from 10 to 50 IJs/ml water with wetting agent in an experimental packing line resulted in mortality in cocooned codling moth larvae of 45-87 and 56 - 85% for S. feltiae and S. carpocapsae, respectively. Our results indicate that EPNs provide an alternative nonchemical means of control that could be applied at the time bins are submerged in dump tanks at the packing house for flotation of fruit.

The potential of the eulophid parasitoid Phymastichus coffea LaSalle to control coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) populations under field conditions in Colombia was evaluated. Parasitoid adults were released one, five and nine days after artificial infestations of 90-, 150- and 210-day-old coffee berries with H. hampei females. The position of the beetle inside the berry and the parasitism levels were assessed ten days after each P. coffea release. Parasitism of H. hampei by P. coffea was significantly affected by the age of the berries at the time of infestation, and by the position of the beetle inside the berries. Highest levels of parasitism were recorded in 150-day-old berries (75-85%) and in 90-day-old berries (75%) when P. coffea were released one day after the artificial infestation with H. hampei. In 150-day-old berries, highest levels of parasitism were recorded for H. hampei found in the outer layer of the endosperm followed by beetles penetrating the exocarp. Increasing the time of P. coffea releases after the artificial infestations with H. hampei led to decreased levels of parasitism in beetles attacking 90- and 150-day-old coffee berries. Low levels of parasitism were recorded in H. hampei females infesting older coffee berries because most of the beetles had already constructed galleries deep in the endosperm of the berries, i.e. out of reach of the parasitoid. The potential of P. coffea for biological control of coffee berry borer in Colombia is discussed.

Parasitoid fitness depends largely on the capability to locate a host in an ecosystem. A parasitoid of a polyphagous host might not be able to find or to access the host in all its feeding niches. This study evaluated the niche selection of Hyssopus pallidus (Askew), a larval parasitoid of Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus), at the plant level with the goal of assessing its potential for biological control on different fruit crops throughout the plant cycle. Parasitoid behaviour during host location and reproduction rate were investigated on host caterpillars actively feeding on apple, pear, apricot or plum, and on caterpillars diapausing under the bark. Under laboratory conditions, the host searching behaviour of H. pallidus varied depending on the fruit species offered and the infestation of the fruits. Parasitoid females searched longer on apples than on other fruit species, and they searched longer on infested than on uninfested apples. Female wasps were able to locate and parasitize host caterpillars under the tree bark, and their behaviour did not vary with host accessibility. The numbers of caterpillars attacked by H. pallidus depended on the fruit species. The highest numbers of caterpillars were parasitized in apples and apricots. Their accessibility (i.e. position) within the fruit or on the branch did not influence parasitism success. Although hosts were parasitized throughout the season, the best results were achieved with early and late releases. Therefore, the host niche selection behaviour of H. pallidus most likely co-evolved with the host C. pomonella on apples, which renders H. pallidus a valuable biocontrol agent for successful release at different times of the season into apple orchards.