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Promotion of nonfood species production to marginal, degraded lands abandoned by mainstream agriculture is affected by extremes of water availability (droughts and floods), which have increased in frequency and intensity and account for severe yield reduction. Arundo donax L., known as giant cane or giant reed, spontaneously grows in different kinds of environments with limitation to low temperature and is thus widespread in temperate and hot areas around the world. Moreover, this perennial rhizomatous grass has been recognized as a leading candidate crop in the Mediterranean for lignocellulosic feedstock due to its high C3 photosynthetic capacity, positive energy balance and low agroecological management demand. In this study, the photosynthetic performance and growth response of A. donax to waterlogging and submergence stress following a time course as well as their respective re-oxygenation were analyzed under reproducible and controlled environment conditions. Results of growth response showed that biomass production was strongly conditioned by the availability of oxygen. In fact, only waterlogged plants showed similar growth capacity to those under control conditions, while plants under submergence resulted in a dramatic reduction of this trait. The simultaneous measurements of both gas exchanges and chlorophyll fluorescence highlighted an alteration of both stomatal and non-stomatal photosynthetic behaviors during a short/medium period of oxygen deprivation and re-oxygenation. Photosynthetic CO2 uptake was strictly related to a combination of stomatal and mesophyll diffusional constrains, depending on the severity of the treatment and exposure time. Conditions of waterlogging and hypoxia revealed a slight growth plasticity of the species in response to prolonged stress conditions, followed by a fast recovery upon reoxygenation. Moreover, the rapid restoration of physiological functions after O2 deprivation testifies to the environmental plasticity of this species, although prolonged O2 shortage proved detrimental to A. donax by hampering growth and photosynthetic CO2 uptake.

The current study investigated the optimization of biogas generation during co-digestion of various plant biomasses with poultry waste at different ratios and pretreatment of plant biomass. The biochemical tests were executed at 35°C in a thermostat. Water hyacinth was found as the suitable substrate for mono and co-digestion due to high volatile solids (VS) and total soluble contents. However, poultry waste was appropriate only if it was co-digested with other biomasses. The experiments evaluating biogas generation at different ratios of plant biomasses and poultry waste demonstrated that water hyacinth and poultry (50:50) produced 262 mL g−1VS, giant reed and poultry (80:20) produced 235 mL g−1VSwhile maize and poultry (60:40) generated 193 mL g−1VS. However, the pretreating the plant biomass with either Fenton's or Fenton's plus ultrasonic had no effect on biogas generation. The volumes of biogas generated after various pretreatment were low as compared to condition without pretreatment. The codigestion can be classified as WH:P (50:50 > GR:P (80:20) > M:P (60:40). So, these ratios can be applied at decentralized scale for better waste management and biogas generation due to balanced C:N ratio of plant biomass and poultry manure. Co-digestion can also be applied at large scale with optimized ratio in Pakistan and other developing countries for biogas generation and waste management and reduce the methane emission through landfills.

Low iLUC risk feedstocks, such as lignocellulosic no-food crops, have been indicated as sustainable crops for the transition to a bio-based economy. Given the high output to input ratio and the environmental benefits that can be obtained from renewable heat production replacing fossil fuels, the present study addressed the biomass yield, CO2-sequestration, and life cycle assessment of giant reed (Arundo donax L.) and miscanthus (Miscanthus × giganteus Greef et Deuter) growing under different soil water availability and nitrogen fertilization for three consecutive growing seasons in a semiarid Mediterranean environment. Giant reed outperformed miscanthus, showed a higher CO2-sequestration and a lower overall environmental impact. In case of both crops, the irrigation effect was significant, while the one of nitrogen fertilization was not apparent. While giant reed responded positively to reduced irrigation, compared to its highest level, as the plantation became older, miscanthus needed high water volume to get most out its potential yield. Nonetheless, the growing season had also a significant effect on both crops, mainly when low yields were achieved following the establishment year. Unlike the environmental benefits in the impact categories “non-renewable energy use” and “global warming potential”, environmental burdens concerning ozone depletion, acidification, and eutrophication were observed, indicating that further improvements of the evaluation of impact assessment associated with bioenergy production might be necessary.

Arundo donax L. (giant reed) is a perennial rhizomatous grass and has been identified as an important non-food biomass crop with capacity for cultivation in marginal and degraded lands where water scarcity conditions frequently occur due to climate change. This review analyzes the effect of water stress on photosynthetic capacity and biomass production in multiple giant reed ecotypes grown in different regions around the world. Furthermore, this review will attempt to explain the reason for the high photosynthetic capacity of giant reed even under changing environmental conditions as well as indicate other morphological reasons that could contribute to maintaining this high photosynthetic rate. Finally, future research in favor of selecting ecotypes with drought tolerance is proposed.

This study evaluated the possibility of adopting haymaking farming machinery in giant reed (Arundo donax L.) harvesting. The test shows the technical and energy aspects of mechanical harvesting using only one specific machine, a shredding machine, designed and developed by an Italian constructor for large biomass herbaceous crops (giant reed, sorghums, switchgrass, Mischantus, etc). It is designed for high vegetative growth crops, as it is able to spread products over all soil surfaces or, alternatively, carry out windrowing. Tests were conducted in the south of Italy (Campania region) on the experimental farm Torre Lama in Bellizzi (SA). Biomass was shredded, dried in the field, and baled for use in a logistic chain and storage. The first step was the cutting and shredding of biomass crops with the specific shredder rear-mounted in an agricultural tractor. The biomass then was dried on the field, constantly monitored for moisture content, and finally, baled with a trailed round baler for storage (second step) and used in a specific logistic chain. The test showed good performance of the shredder machine between 1.17 and 1.77 ha h−1 with an operative speed between 3.9 and 5. 9 km h−1. To define the hourly production, a high wet production level of 60.70 t ha−1 and a low level of 56 t ha−1 were used as references. Under the climatic conditions of the experimental test, this harvesting system showed some advantages, such as the possibility of immediate and long-term biomass storage (less than 14% moisture content), the potential alternative use of the biomass, and the reduced resource use compared to that of other ordinary crops growing in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Giant reed (Arundo donax) has proved to be effective in detoxification, accumulation and tolerance of toxic metals. The present study explored the stress response of giant reed against Cu and Ni stress. The effect of metal stress was studied on dry weight, chlorophyll pigments antioxidant enzymes production and selected genes expression. The accumulation of heavy metals increased in a concentration-dependent manner and depicted toxicity symptoms in leaves beyond 75 mg/L of Cu or Ni. Oxidative stress was evident in giant reed under highest exposure of Ni and Cu which increased antioxidants activities (SOD, POD and CAT). It was observed that metal transport and detoxification were possible due to the expression of glutathione reductase, Natural Resistance-Associated Macrophage Protein (NRAMP) and Yellow Stripe-Like (YSL) genes. These insights into the genetic basis of a successful remediating plant species will be useful in understanding heavy metals tolerance in giant reed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Invasive plant species can have many detrimetal impacts on native vegetation in natural areas. Here we examine the impacts of giant reed, buffelgrass, Sahara mustard, tamarisk, tree of heaven, and vinca in the Aravaipa Canyon Wilderness and surrounding areas in Arizona. All six of these species can form monotypic stands, thereby excluding native vegetation and gready changing the natural environment and native species diversity. The three invasive species with the earliest known introductions in the mid-20th century into Aravaipa Canyon, giant reed, tree of heaven, and vinca, were planted around homesteads as ornamentals or for shade. Although these species are quite different plant types, giant reed and vinca reproduce vegetatively in Aravaipa and tree of heaven has extensive vegetative reproduction. Giant reed and vinca might represent novel life forms in western US riparian environments, potentially enhancing their success as invasive species. In contrast, the three species with later introductions, buffelgrass, Sahara mustard, and tamarisk, were introduced either by long distance seed dispersal or by movement on vehicles. In addition, Aravaipa Canyon experiences periodic disturbance and scouring by high volume flooding and these impacts appear to play an important role in the establishment and spread of these invasive plants in Aravaipa Canyon. An element that is troubling for both public safety and the native environment is that giant reed, buffelgrass, and tamarisk can all fuel very hot fires. In addition, these three species are highly adapted to fire and the survival and reproduction of these invasive species is enhanced while native vegetation is killed, thereby resulting in a positive feedback for the numbers and distribution of the invasives. The two species that are most likely to be eliminated from Aravaipa are giant reed and tree of heaven. The two plants that appear to be long-term and widespread challenges to control are Sahara mustard and tamarisk. Tamarisk is well established, has very high seed production, and has long distance dispersal. Sahara mustard also has very high seed production and appears to be spreading despite extensive efforts to control it. The other two species, buffelgrass and vinca present other challenges even though they presently have restricted distributions. Understanding the factors contributing to the presence and elimination or control of these six invasive plant species in the Aravaipa Canyon Wilderness and the surrounding area might help to inform efforts to control invasive plant species in other natural areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent growth of interest in Arundo donax L. (Giant reed) as an energy crop is due to its great vegetative vigor and high biomass productivity. This perennial rhizomatous plant is able to grow in a wide range of pedo-climatic conditions and it has been employed by man for a great number of purposes. This has promoted its worldwide diffusion, despite its sexual sterility. Field establishment represents the most expensive phase of the whole cultivation cycle, because of the high cost of the propagules. In this work three agamic propagation methods, rhizome transplantation, hydroponic cultivation, and in vitro propagation, were compared with the aim of improving their efficiency, and reducing costs and time required. We focused our attention on in vitro and hydroponic cultivation, finding clones characterized by a high response to these propagation methods. In vitro propagation is the most widespread technique adopted in the large-scale production of propagules; according to our results hydroponic cultivation also appears to be a valid and cheap propagation method, making it possible to obtain in about 2 months, vigorous plants ready to be transplanted into the field. We found a strong effect of the clone used on the success rate of the specific propagation method, suggesting that clonal selection could be particularly useful in improving the efficiency of propagation techniques, contributing to cost reduction. Evaluation of field performance of plants propagated by tissue culture is an important matter, considering the possible residual effects of hormones on plants' growth, and the importance of first year growth for field establishment. These experiments highlighted the lower biomass production from plants obtained by tissue culture. A novel cytokinin-like hormone, meta-topolin, was tested in vitro, in a preliminary study to evaluate its possible use for A. donax L. propagation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although naturally heterogeneous environments can lead to mosaic hybrid zones, human-induced habitat fragmentation can also lead to environmental heterogeneity and hybridization. Here we quantify phenotypic and molecular divergence across a reed frog mosaic hybrid zone on São Tomé Island as a first step towards understanding the consequences of hybridization across this heterogeneous landscape. The São Tomé giant reed frog (Hyperolius thomensis) is strongly tied to cool, wet, forest habitats whereas the distribution of Moller's reed frog (H. molleri) spans cool, wet, forests to warm, dry, disturbed habitats. Correspondingly, hybridization is concentrated in the more forested, cool, wet sites relative to non-forested, warmer, drier habitats. Four of six sites with hybrid frogs are artificial water bodies near the forest edge, indicating that both breeding habitat and broader scale environmental variation are probably important for understanding interspecific interactions and the extent of hybridization in this system. Phenotypic variation (body size and ventral coloration) largely tracks genetic and environmental variation across the hybrid zone with larger and more pigmented frogs occurring in forested, cool, wet habitats. Understanding whether human-induced changes in habitat break down reproductive barriers will be essential for conservation management of the less abundant, forest-associated H. thomensis in the face of rampant hybridization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A. donax waste biomass has been valorized for the extraction of cellulosic fractions with different purification degrees, as well as aqueous bioactive extracts, which were then combined to develop superabsorbent bioactive aerogels. All the developed aerogels presented excellent water and oil sorption capacities; however, the presence of hemicelluloses yielded more porous and hydrophilic aerogels, capable of absorbing more water. With regards to the aqueous extracts, the hot water treatment (HW) of A. donax stems promoted the extraction of polysaccharides and polyphenols, producing the extract (S-HW) with the highest antioxidant capacity. This extract was then incorporated into the aerogels produced from the less purified stem fractions (F2A and F3A), which were chosen due to their good water sorption capacity, higher antioxidant potential and lower production costs and environmental impact. The hybrid aerogels showed a great potential to be used as bioactive pads for food packaging. In particular, the F2A + S-HW aerogel would be the most optimum choice since it provides a complete release of the extract in hydrophilic media, as demonstrated by in-vitro release and β-carotene bleaching inhibition studies, and it is able to reduce the colour loss and lipid oxidation in red meat upon refrigerated storage to a greater extent. Image 1 • Cellulosic fractions extracted from A. donax biomass produced superabsorbent aerogels. • Fractions containing hemicelluloses produced more hydrophilic and porous aerogels. • Extracts with the highest antioxidant capacity were obtained by a heating treatment. • Selected aerogels provided a complete release of the extract in hydrophilic media. • Hybrid aerogels reduced oxidation processes in red meat upon storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Cyperus eragrostis roots stop to grow as Cu exposure exceeds 20 μM. • Root Cu content of Phalaris arundinacea do not reach the Cu-ecocatalyst level. • At 40 μM Cu, Iris pseudacorus roots reach the Cu-ecocatalyst level. • Above 10 μM Cu, Arundo donax roots meet the Cu-ecocatalyst level. Four macrophytes commonly used to clean up Cu contaminated effluents, i.e. Arundo donax L. , Cyperus eragrostis Lam. , Iris pseudacorus L. and Phalaris arundinacea L., were assessed to produce Cu–rich plant biomass intended for ecofriendly catalyst preparation. 7-month-old plants were exposed to a Cu gradient (0.08, 2, 10, 20 and 40 µM Cu) in batch conditions during 2 months. Copper exposure affected the root DW yield of C. eragrostis from 2 µM Cu, whereas I. pseudacorus and A. donax developed well. Maximum Cu concentration in the biomass of C. eragrostis and P. arundinacea (i.e. 255 and 838 mg Cu kg−1 DW respectively) did not reach the 1000 mg Cu kg−1 DW threshold value needed to produce Cu-ecocatalysts. Copper concentrations in the roots of I. pseudacorus and A. donax exceeded this threshold value at 40 µM and over 10 µM Cu, i.e. 1099 and 1809 mg Cu kg−1 DW, respectively, making them relevant candidates for producing Cu-ecocatalysts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anaerobic co-digestion of mixed feedstocks improves the biogas yields due to a better balance of nutrients in the digestion medium. A suitable choice for improving biogas yields from the anaerobic digestion of municipal solid wastes is the co-digestion with lignocellulosic materials. The growing exploitation of the giant reed in several industrial fields motivated a preliminary investigation on the anaerobic co-digestion of steam-exploded giant reed and the organic fraction of municipal solid wastes (OFMSW).The anaerobic digestion was carried out at 37 °C, in batch operation mode. Biogas volumes produced and the concentration–time profiles of volatile fatty acids were analysed for different initial ratios of the mixed feedstock. All the mixtures performed better than the single feedstock. The optimal biogas yield was obtained with the co-digestion of a mixture containing 75% OFMSW and 25% giant reed, which produced 236 mL CH4/g VS with a 1.5-fold increase respect to the digestion of OFMSW alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phytochelatin synthases (PCSs) play pivotal roles in the detoxification of heavy metals and metalloids in plants; however, little information on the evolution of recently duplicated PCS genes in plant species is available. Here we characterize the evolution and functional differentiation of three PCS genes from the giant reed (Arundo donax L.), a biomass/bioenergy crop with remarkable resistance to cadmium and other heavy metals. Phylogenetic reconstruction with PCS genes from fully sequenced monocotyledonous genomes indicated that the three A. donax PCSs, namely AdPCS1-3 , form a monophyletic clade. The AdPCS1-3 genes were expressed at low levels in many A. donax organs and displayed different levels of cadmium-responsive expression in roots. Overexpression of AdPCS1-3 in Arabidopsis thaliana and yeast reproduced the phenotype of functional PCS genes. Mass spectrometry analyses confirmed that AdPCS1-3 are all functional enzymes, but with significant differences in the amount of the phytochelatins synthesized. Moreover, heterogeneous evolutionary rates characterized the AdPCS1-3 genes, indicative of relaxed natural selection. These results highlight the elevated functional differentiation of A. donax PCS genes from both a transcriptional and an enzymatic point of view, providing evidence of the high evolvability of PCS genes and of plant responsiveness to heavy metal stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Combination of sand filter and constructed wetlands to removal nutrients from olive mill wastewater. • Very significant reduction of TKN, NH 4 +, NO 3 −, PT and PO 4 3− after the percolation of the diluted OMW through sand filter. • The presence of a mixture of aquatic plants, lead to an increase in planted system performance in terms of nitrogen and phosphorus reduction. The current study was carried out to test the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus from olive mill wastewater (OMW) by combination of sand filter and a mixture of aquatic plants (Phragmites australis , Typha latifolia and Arundo donax). The experimental pilot was composed of two serial systems: sand filter followed by vertical flow constructed wetlands (VF-CWs). The sand filter was filled with 50 cm of sand and 10 cm of gravel in the top and the bottom of the filter. The second step of the treatment consists of a tank (1 × 1 × 1 m3) filled with 20 cm of gravel and 60 cm of soil, planted with a mixture of aquatic plants at a density of 8 young plants/m2 for each plant and irrigated twice in the week by 20L of preliminary filtered OMW. During all experiment, OMW was diluted with domestic wastewater at a ration 1/1 (v/v). Mean diluted OMW concentrations were 2.05 g/L, 1.52 g/L, 1.94 mg/L, 1.70 mg/L, 0.22 g/L, 0.30 g/L, 26.78 g/L and 20.47 g/L for TKN-N, NH 4 +-N, NO 2 −-N, NO 3 −N, ortho-phosphate (OP), Total phosphorus (PT) total COD and dissolved COD respectively. Despite the rather high influent concentrations, the performance of the sand filter was very effective since it achieved average removals of about 60.4%, 74.4%, 80.61%, 97.85%, 96.45%, 79.75% and 76.75% for NTK, NH 4 +, NO 3 −, PO 4 3−, PT total COD and dissolved COD respectively. The presence of aquatic plants was more efficient in removing of nutrients and organic load. The average elimination of experimental system (sand filter + VF-CWs) in terms of flow was 62.48% for NTK, 90.43% for NH 4 +, 77.25% for NO 3 −, 98.51% for PO 4 3−, 97.53% for PT and 99.05% for total COD. In general, this study shows potential application of the experimental system to achieve nutrient and COD removal from OMW. Although the percent removal of organic matter and nutrients from OMW was very high, final OMW concentrations remained high, thus preventing their use for irrigation or immediate disposal into the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims The development of Arundo donax as a biomass crop for use on drought-prone marginal lands in areas with warm to hot climates is constrained by the lack of variation within this species. We investigated the effect of morphological and physiological variation on growth and tolerance to drought under field conditions in three ecotypes of A. donax collected from habitats representing a climate gradient: a pre-desert in Morocco, a semi-arid Mediterranean climate in southern Italy and a warm sub-humid region of central Italy. Methods The three A. donax ecotypes were grown under irrigated and rain-fed conditions in a common garden field trial in a region with a semi-arid Mediterranean climate. Physiological and morphological characteristics, and carbohydrate metabolism of the ecotypes were recorded to establish which traits were associated with yield and/or drought tolerance. Key Results Variation was observed between the A. donax ecotypes. The ecotype from the most arid habitat produced the highest biomass yield. Stem height and the retention of photosynthetic capacity later in the year were key traits associated with differences in biomass yield. The downregulation of photosynthetic capacity was not associated with changes in foliar concentrations of sugars or starch. Rain-fed plants maintained photosynthesis and growth later in the year compared with irrigated plants that began to senescence earlier, thus minimizing the difference in yield. Effective stomatal control prevented excessive water loss, and the emission of isoprene stabilized photosynthetic membranes under drought and heat stress in A. donax plants grown under rain-fed conditions without supplementary irrigation. Conclusions Arundo donax is well adapted to cultivation in drought-prone areas with warm to hot climates. None of the A. donax ecotypes exhibited all of the desired traits consistent with an 'ideotype'. Breeding or genetic (identification of quantitative trait loci) improvement of A. donax should select ecotypes on the basis of stem morphology and the retention of photosynthetic capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims Giant reed (Arundo donax L.) is a deep-rooted crop that can survive prolonged dry periods probably as a result of its capacity to uptake water from below ground, but specific information on the functioning of deep/shallow roots is missing. The objective of this study was to understand the dynamic interrelationships of root water acquisition, canopy water conservation and abscisic acid (ABA) signals from both shallow and deep roots. Methods In transparent split top–bottom rhizotron systems (1-m-high columns), where hydraulically isolated and independently watered layers were created with the aid of calibrated soil moisture sensors, water uptake trends were monitored. Rooting patterns were traced on the walls of the rhizotrons. Leaf gas exchange was determined using a portable infrared gas analyser. Leaf and root ABA concentrations were monitored. Key Results Under well-watered conditions, water uptake from both upper and deeper soil layers was similar. Water uptake from deeper soil layers increased gradually by up to 2.2-fold when drought stress was imposed to upper layers compared to the control conditions. Despite the significant increase in water uptake from deeper layers, surface root length density of drought-treated plants remained unchanged, suggesting increased root water uptake efficiency by these roots. However, these adjustments were not sufficient to sustain photosynthesis and therefore biomass accumulation, which was reduced by 42 %. The ABA content in shallower drought-treated roots increased 2.6-fold. This increase closely and positively correlated with foliar ABA concentration, increased intrinsic water use efficiency and leaf water potential (LWP). Conclusions Giant reed is able to change its water sources depending on water availability and to maximize water uptake efficiency to satisfy canopy evapotranspirative demands. The regulation of deep root functioning and distribution, adjustment of canopy size, and root/foliar synthesized ABA play a central role in controlling LWP and leaf transpiration efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A. donax showed the highest aboveground biomass and rhizomes production. • CO 2 and CH 4 emissions were affected by operating year and season. • Plant presence and species significantly influenced bed CO 2 emissions. • Plant presence and species did not influenced beds CH 4 emissions. • A. donax was the most environmentally friendly species in terms of CO 2(eq) budget followed by P. australis. The aim of this research was to evaluate the role of constructed wetland (CW) horizontal sub-surface flow pilot-plant beds vegetation, comparing four perennial herbaceous plant species with an unvegetated bed, on carbon dioxide (CO 2) and methane (CH 4) emissions, and CO 2(eq) budgets. The research was conducted from April 1st to November 30th in 2012 and 2013 in a pilot plant located in San Michele di Ganzaria (Sicily, Italy) that treated urban wastewaters, studying Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. (common reed), Arundo donax L. (giant reed), Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty (vetiver) and Miscanthus x giganteus Greef et Deu. (miscanthus). Results showed a greater aboveground biomass yield in the second experimental year than the first one for all species except vetiver, which showed a 10.5% reduction. Considering CWs gases emission, a significantly higher CO 2 emission (+52.5%) was monitored in 2013 than 2012 whereas CH 4 had the opposite trend (−97.0%). Seasons and plant species influenced gases emission. The lower CO 2 emission (median value 5.2 g m−2 d−1) was monitored during the spring seasons when instead was monitored the highest CH 4 emission (median value 0.232 g m−2 d−1). Opposite CO 2 and CH 4 emissions were found in fall. A. donax , M. giganteus and P. australis determined significantly higher (2.9 times) CO 2 emission than C. zizanioides and unvegetated bed. Vegetated beds showed a positive CO 2(eq) total balance with the best results calculated for A. donax whereas, as expected, it was negative for the unvegetated bed, with a cumulative CO 2(eq) emission of 6.68 kg m−2. Obtained results confirm the active and key role of plant species used in the CW systems and indicate A. donax as the most environmentally friendly species to use under Mediterranean climate conditions, followed by P. australis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The widely usage of silver nanoparticles in a range of consumer products inevitably results in its being released to the wastewater. As a result, the potential negative effects associated with AgNPs on wastewater treatment systems need to be assessed to develop the regulatory guidelines. In this paper, the exposure experiment at environmentally relevant concentration (100 μg L−1) were conducted to demonstrate the effects of AgNPs on the pollutant removals in constructed wetlands (CWs) with different plants and the spatial distribution of silver. Before adding AgNPs, the system with Arundo donax (VF2) had the better nitrogen removal than Cyperus alternifolius (VF1). After exposure for about 94 d, the average removal efficiencies of NH 4 +-N significantly reduced by 32.43% and 23.92%, TN of 15.82% and 17.18% and TP of 22.74% and 20.46% in VF1 and VF2, respectively, while the COD removal had no difference. However, presence of 100 μg L−1 AgNPs for about 450 d showed no inhibition effects on nutrient removals in two experimental CWs. Two wetlands showed high removal efficiencies of about 98% on AgNPs, indicating CWs could play a crucial role to control the AgNPs release to environment. It was found that AgNPs mainly accumulated in the soil layer with the Ag content of 0.45–5.96 μg g−1 dry weight in lower soil and 2.84–11.37 μg g−1 dry weight in upper soil. The roots of Cyperus alternifolius absorbed more AgNPs, with higher bioconcentration factors (1.32–1.44) than that of 0.59 in Arundo donax. The differences of translocation factors on leaves and stems in two test plants showed that AgNPs assimilated by roots in Cyperus alternifolius were more easily transferred to the leaves. The obtained results showed that the macrophyte Cyperus alternifolius could be better choice for immobilization of AgNPs. Image 1091766 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work reports the isolation of cellulose from giant reed through an ecofriendly multistep procedure including alkali treatment and totally chlorine free delignification, followed by acid hydrolysis to prepare microcrystalline cellulose using different acidic solutions (HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, HCl/HNO3 (2:1, v/v), and HCl/H2SO4 (2:1, v/v)). Several characterizations were performed in order to investigate the properties of each sample. FTIR results affirmed that the successive alkali treatment, totally chlorine free bleaching, and acid hydrolysis remove efficiently hemicellulose, lignin, and amorphous regions from the giant reed, and showed that the characteristic peaks of the prepared giant reed microcrystalline celluloses (GRMCC-HCl, GRMCC-HNO3, GRMCC-H2SO4, GRMCC-HCl/HNO3, and GRMCC-HCl/H2SO4) were similar to those of the commercial one. XRD measurements exhibited that microcrystalline cellulose produced from giant reed belong to cellulose I allomorph, with crystallinity index ranging from 73 to 80%. SEM micrographs revealed non-uniform micro sized rod-like shape morphology of GRMCC samples. The thermal analysis results displayed that the thermal decomposition of the obtained GRMCCs shifted to higher temperatures compared to the respective giant reed cellulose. This work opened a new pathway to prepare cellulose and microcrystalline cellulose from an abundant natural source using an ecofriendly process, and it could be expected to have applications in several areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to determine the operating conditions to implement the Dimethylphthalate removal using an activated carbon prepared from Arundo donax, carbonized at 358 °C during 13 min. To achieve this objective, the study is conducted in batch and dynamic mode. Several kinetic models are applied, namely pseudo-first order, pseudo-second order, intragranular, and Bangham models. The pseudo-second-order model fits the data perfectly, the estimated regression coefficients >0.999. The intragranular diffusion takes place in two stages. The two-parameter (Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, and Dubinin-Radushkevich) and three-parameter models (Redlich-Peterson, Sips, and Toth) are applied to model the equilibrium isotherms. The nonlinear regression methodology based on the error functions (hybrid fractional error function, Marquardt's percent standard deviation, average relative error, Sum of the absolute errors) is applied. The HYBRID fits properly the data showing that the Temkin model gives the best fitting (R2adj = 0.992), and the Dubinin-Radushkevich model the worst (R2adj = 0.793). The thermodynamic study shows that the adsorption occurs according to a physical process. The DMP desorption is more effective with a 5% NaOH solution. In dynamic mode, the runs are conducted in fixed bed column. The effect of the bed height, the DMP initial concentration, and the flow rate on the breakthrough curves is investigated, then these breakthrough curves are modeled using the Thomas and Bed Depth Service Time models. The regeneration of the exhausted Arundo donax activated carbon is performed in a column, after 5 cycles, the breakthrough time decreases from 65.3 to 26.8 h, however, the exhaustion time varies less rapidly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Limited studies are available on the combined use of conservation tillage and AGT in terms of resource conservation. • Conservation tillage + Arundo donax AGT reduced runoff by 24% and soil loss by 8.22 t ha−1 vs. only conservation tillage. • Conservation tillage + AGT were more profitable than only conservation tillage on sloping crop lands. • Three rainfed crops could be raised in a year with conservation tillage + AGT by using green water technology. Despite investigations suggesting that agro-geo-textiles (AGT) could be an effective and inexpensive soil conservation method, limited quantitative data are available on erosion-reducing effects of AGT under field conditions and effects on crop productivity. Field experiments (probably first of its kind) were conducted on two crop rotations during 2015-16 and 2016-17 at Dehradun on a 4% land slope in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR). Seven treatments were executed to evaluate the conservation effects of AGT prepared from giant-cane (Arundo donax) and maize (Zea mays L.) straw; and comparisons were made with coir-geo-textile, cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), and grass weed vegetative filters (all placed at 1 m vertical intervals, within 100 m length plots in the rainy season maize crop) on crop productivity, profitability, runoff and soil loss reduction, and moisture conservation. During two years of experimentation, a total of 35 runoff events were observed in maize crops in rainy months (June to September). Results revealed that the highest (p < 0.05) maize grain yield (2.8 Mg ha−1) was recorded in Arundo donax AGT treatment (conservation agriculture plus), which was 36% higher than maize crops raised without AGT (conservation agriculture only). This treatment also reduced runoff (24%) and conserved soil losses (8.22 t ha-1 year -1) across 18 runoff events, resulting in more soil moisture conserved in the soil profile than without AGT (35 runoff events). Productivities of succeeding pea (Pisum sativum var. hortense) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L. emend Fiori & Paol.) crops were enhanced by 122 and 36%, respectively, which resulted the higher net return (736 US$ ha−1) than in a maize-pea-wheat system in conservation agriculture only (128 US$ ha−1). In summary, conservation tillage practices along with AGT (conservation agriculture plus) are more profitable than conservation tillage practices alone on 4% land slopes of IHR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Objective] To provide a theoretical basis for the selection of aquatic plants suitable for ecological remediation, the potential of different aquatic plants on the purification of sewage was analyzed. [Method]Nine aquatic plants were selected as research objects. Their nitrogen and phosphorus absorption along with their root oxygen release characteristics were studied by measuring pH, ammonia nitrogen (NH4+-N), nitrate nitrogen (NO3--N), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and dissolved oxygen (DO) under controlled laboratory conditions. At the same time, the relationship between the absorption of nutrients on the pH of the aqueous solution, the amount of radial oxygen loss and the amount of organic matter assimilated were analyzed. [Result]Nine kinds of aquatic plants had strong absorption capacity for N and P in water. Among them, Canna indica and Eichhomia crassipes had strong absorption capacity for N and P, Vallisneria natans had stronger ability to absorb different form of nitrogen, and Cyperus altemifolius had stronger TP absorption performance with a rate exceeding 70%. NH4+-N and TP had close relationship with pH of the medium. The correlation coefficients were 0.344 (P<0.05, n =36) and 0.708 (P<0.01, n=36) respectively, indicating that TP had a greater influence on pH. The correlation between the root radial oxygen loss and the removal of reduced organic compounds in water was higher (R2 =0. 845, P<0. 01). The root oxygen release ability was different between the nine species. The oxygen supply capacity of Arundo donax var. versicolor, Thalia dealbata and Cyperus altenifolius was significantly greater than that of other plants. [Conclusion]Vallisneria natans, Canna indica, Eichhornia crassipes, Cyperus alternifolius had better assimilation perfomance on N and P, and can be used in the sewage with high nitrogen and phosphorus content. The oxygen release ability and oxidation capacity of Arundo donax var. versicolor, Thalia dealbata and Cyperus altemifolius were higher. Oxygen organics had high removal capacity and was suitable for planting in sewage with high amount of reduced organic matter. Cyperus alternifolius not only had better purification effect on nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, but also had high oxygen release ability and removal ability of oxygen-consuming organic matter, and can be popularized and applied as cultivated plants in eutrophic water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microbial oil obtainable from the fermentation of lignocellulose hydrolysates represents a promising and sustainable alternative to first generation biodiesel. Among the lignocellulosic crops, giant reed (Arundo donax) is attracting interest due to the impressive biomass yield and the low input requirement. However, a delignification step is needed to facilitate the fermentable sugar release from the lignocellulosic matrix, paying attention to the production of growth inhibitors that represent a bottleneck in the development of microbial oil production. The aim of this study was to evaluate the suitability of an enzymatic hydrolysate of alkali pre-treated A. donax biomass, as a substrate for the growth of the oleaginous yeast Lipomyces starkeyi. Specific attention was also paid to possible inhibitory effects of compounds generated by the alkaline pre-treatment (10% slurry, NaOH 0-1.5% w/w, 120 °C, 20 min). Increasing NaOH levels enhanced the release of phenolic compounds and increased the fermentable sugar yield after enzymatic hydrolysis of the washed pre-treated fiber. Saccharification yields reached a plateau in correspondence to NaOH 1.2% dose, which gave 407 mg of sugars per g of dry biomass. A medium containing 30 g/L of reducing sugars from the hydrolysate resulted suitable for the growth of L. starkeyi and for lipid accumulation, achieving 12.2 g/L of dry cell biomass with 43% w/w of total lipids. The pre-treatment produced soluble inhibitors that affected moderately the yeast growth in an initial phase, followed by a recovery. Thus, extensive washing of the fiber could be avoided, while a thorough filtration after the pre-treatment would be recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contaminants from various anthropogenic activities such as agriculture, mining, and recreation negatively affect wetland water quality and vegetation health and composition. Phytoremediation is an effective, sustainable and eco-friendly pollution abatement method using green plants. Arundo donax L. and Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. are two morphologically similar reeds commonly used for phytoremediation in wetlands of South Africa. Arundo donax is however, a declared category ’1b’ weed under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEM:BA, Act No. 10 of 2004), requiring its immediate removal. Thus, determining the phytoremediation efficiency of the two reeds could help making the right choice between them for potential use in wetlands. Furthermore, the effeciency of wetlands depends on a robust monitoring system for phytoremediating plants to determine the appropriate time for biomass harvest before they die and release contaminants taken up in plant tissues back into the source through decomposition. Remote sensing can be used for mapping and monitoring of such aquatic macrophytes at species level effectively. Satellites imageries with high spatial and spectral resolutions not only are capable of detecting heavy metal-induced plant stresses, but also can effectively discriminate between morphologically similar species like A. donax and P. Australis and facilitate wetland managment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salinization is one of the major causes of agricultural soil degradation worldwide. In arid and semi-arid regions with calcareous soils, phosphorus (P) deficiency further worsens the quality of salinized soils. Nonetheless, nutrient poor soils could be suitable of producing second-generation energy crops. Due to its high biomass production, Arundo donax L. (giant reed) is one of the most promising species for energy and second-generation biofuel production. A. donax can be propagated by micropropagation, an in vitro technique that produces high number of homogeneous plantlets. However, crop establishment is often compromised due to poor plantlet acclimatization to the soil environment. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AM) are components of soil-plant systems able to increase root phosphorus uptake and to confer the plant an increase tolerance to salinity with a consequent enhancement effect of plant growth and yield. In the present study, the relative importance of the early symbiosis establishment between AM fungi and A. donax micropropagated plantlets in the response to salt stress under low phosphorus availability was determined. A commercial inoculum which contained two different AM fungi species: Rhizophagus intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae was used. AM-symbionts (AM) and non-symbionts plants were grown at two phosphorus [2.5 μM (C) and 0.5 mM (P)] and three NaCl (1, 75 and 150 mM) concentrations in a room chamber under controlled conditions. After 5 weeks, AM root colonization was 60, 26 and 15% in 1, 75 and 150 mM NaCl-treated plants, respectively. At 1 and 75 mM NaCl, AM plants showed increased growth. In all saline treatments, AM plants had decreased Na+ uptake, Na+ root-to-shoot translocation, Na+/K+ ratio and increased P and K use efficiencies with respect to C and P plants. AM improved the nutritional status of A. donax plants by enhancing nutrient use efficiency rather than nutrient uptake. Increased phosphorus use efficiency in AM plants could have benefited ion (Na+ and K+) uptake and/or allocation and ultimately ameliorate the plant's response to saline conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cost of biopolymer production is one of the most important factor restricting the industrial application of Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB). The main aim of this present study is to explore suitable low-cost novel substrate for PHB production. In this study, giant reed grass (GRG) biomass was pretreated with different concentration of NaOH (1-3%) at various conditions like room temperature, microwave irradiation high temperature and pressure (HTP). Among these three conditions, at the HTP pretreatment with 2% NaOH, the maximum fermentable glucose of 79.32% was obtained after removal of llignin by SC/AA treatment. Further, this pretreatment condition was used for hydrolysate preparation for PHB biosynthesis using B. subtilis RNM. Under optimized condition, the maximum PHB of 46.21±0.2 gL-1 was obtained from GRG hydrolysate. This result indicates that the GRG hydrolysate could be a novel low-cost substrate for PHB biosynthesis. This is the first attempt we made to use GRG hydrolysate as feedstock for PHB biosynthesis. Moreover, the produced PHB was characterized by ¹H NMR, FTIR and thermal amalysis (DSC and TGA) techniques. The characterized results were very similar to characters of commercial PHB. Further, the produced PHB was used for doxorubicin - PHB microparticles preparation with 93.21±0.15 % of encapsulation efficiency and found its anticancer drug delivery efficiency as 98%. Hence, this study demonstrates that the PHB biosynthesized from GRG hydrolysate could be a best biodegradable polymer for anticancer drug doxorubicin encapsulation and delivery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Average biochar and bio-oil yields were 30.12% and 45.62%, respectively. • Biochar was alkaline in nature with calorific value of 29.51 MJ/kg. • Potassium has the highest percentage in the biomass mineral composition. Abstract Production of biomass crops is competing with food production in terms of arable land, therefore, attention is being given to the establishment of dedicated energy crops on marginal lands. While more attention has been given to C 4 plants like Miscanthus and Switchgrass due to their high productivity and ability to withstand unfavorable soil conditions, Arundo donax (a C 3 plant) has also been proven to thrive well on marginal lands and has high productivity. In this study, pyrolysis of Arundo donax harvested on a reclaimed mine land in West Virginia was carried out in a batch reactor at a temperature of 500 °C for 30 min and the pyrolysis products were collected and characterized. Pyrolysis products distribution was 30.12%, 45.62% and 24.26% for the biochar, bio-oil and non-condensable gases, respectively. Calorific values of the biomass and the biochar were found to be 18.96 and 29.51 MJ/kg, respectively. The pH of the biochar showed that it is alkaline in nature while the pH of the bio-oil showed that it is acidic in nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Tree-herb intercropping was proposed for use in remediation of metal(loid)-contaminated soil. Changes in the enzymatic activities and microbial communities in contaminated soil during tree-herb intercropping were studied through dynamic sampling in a greenhouse experiment. Two herb plants, Pteris vittata L. (W) and Arundo donax L. (L), and two tree plants, Morus alba L. (S) and Broussonetia papyrifera L. (G), were selected for tree-herb intercropping, namely SL, GL, GW, SW, and GSLW intercropping. The activities of four enzymes, dehydrogenase activity (DHA), urease activity (UA), sucrase activity (SA) and acid phosphatase activity (APA), are involved in N, C, P cycling and were measured colorimetrically, while the bacterial and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal community structures were determined using polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE). The results showed that tree-herb intercropping could effectively recover enzymatic activity, and bacterial and AM fungal diversity in metal(loid)-contaminated soil. Compared with treatment without plants, the SA and APA activity after the five tree-herb intercropping treatments were significantly (p < 0.05) increased by 1.64–2.51 times and 2.35–5.70 times after 270 d of cultivation, respectively. Meanwhile, the Shannon-Wiener indexes for bacteria and AM fungi increased by 13.6–17.7% and 20.0–36.9%, respectively. Soil DHA, UA, and SA were slightly affected by tree-herb intercropping; however, APA was further significantly enhanced by SL, GL, and GSLW intercropping when compared to the monoculture treatments after 270 d of cultivation. These results indicated that tree-herb intercropping could effectively mitigate the toxic effects of metal(loid)s on soil enzyme activities and microbial community structures and enhance the potential for ecological remediation of metal(loid)-contaminated soil in mining areas. Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image Highlights • Tree-herb intercropping improves the biological quality of polluted soil. • Soil enzyme activity and microbial diversity benefited from tree-herb intercropping. • Acid phosphatase activity was further enhanced by SL, GL, and GSLW intercropping. • Tree-herb intercropping had a significant impact on the AM fungal community in soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The HN and YN giant reed populations were identified usefully for phytoremediation based on heavy metal indicators. • Giant reed ecotypes were identified based on biochemical and morphological indicators. • Giant reed populations were highly sustainable based on genetic indicators analysis. Abstract An investigation of giant reed (Arundo donax L.) in a non-ferrous mining and smelting area in southern China was carried out to select indicators to identify ecotypes suitable for phytoremediation in terms of their morphology, biochemistry, and sustainability. Giant reed populations were found to be able to survive in extremely contaminated soils in the studied non-ferrous mining and smelting area of southern China, with soil pH ranging from 2.9 to 9.59, cadmium (Cd) content of up to 525 mg/kg, and lead (Pb) content of up to 57194 mg/kg. The giant reed population at Hunan (HN), with a soil Cd content of up to 2.3 mg/kg, and that at Yunnan (YN), with a soil Pb content of up to 33.8 mg/kg, were selected as suitable sources of ecotypes with high phytoremediation potential in the studied area's soil. The leaf area, height, and photosynthetic pigment content of plants of the HN and YN ecotypes were not significantly affected by metal contamination compared to some other populations, while the malondialdehyde (MDA) content of giant reeds was increased by up to 30 μmol/g by Cd and Pb contamination. In the results of a principal component analysis (PCA) of all the giant reed indicators assessed, the different giant reed ecotypes were most clearly identified by the biochemical and morphological indicators included in principal component 2. The biochemical and morphological indicators of giant reed, including their leaf area, height, and content of malondialdehyde (MDA) and chlorophyll a could thus be regarded as decisive indicators for the identification of giant reed ecotypes, which was confirmed by a further detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) and redundancy analysis (RDA). The irregular granular excretion was also a reliable indicator of giant reed ecotypes with phytoremediation potential, especially of the solid ecotypes examined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The identified indicators were consistent with the finding that these giant reed ecotypes could be pseudo-metallophytes. In addition, the level of genetic variation was not significantly reduced by heavy metal accumulation, identifying a sustainability of a giant reed population. Considering the similarity in the proportion of cellulose content, the giant reed could also be widely used as bioenergy crop producing abundant cellulose for the economical phytoremediation of large areas of non-ferrous contaminated soil. The methods and conclusions of this study could also serve as a reference and source of guidance for the identification of indicators of other plants with promising phytoremediation potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Enemy Release Hypothesis (ERH) predicts that introduced plant species can escape herbivory and therefore have a competitive advantage over native plants, which are exposed to both generalist and specialist natural enemies. In this study, the ERH was explored using the invasive alien species, Arundo donax and two native tall-statured grasses, the cosmopolitan Phragmites australis and African endemic Phragmites mauritianus in South Africa. It was predicted that A. donax would have reduced species richness of herbivores compared with the native Phragmites spp., that it would be devoid of specialist herbivores and would thus be experiencing enemy escape in the adventive range. The herbivore assemblages were determined from both field surveys and a literature review. The assumptions of the ERH were for the most part not met; 13 herbivores were found on A. donax compared with 17 on P. australis and 20 on P. mauritianus. Arundo donax had two specialist herbivores from its native range, and shared native herbivores with Phragmites spp. Although A. donax had reduced species richness and diversity compared with that found in the native distribution, it has partially re-acquired a herbivore assemblage which is similar to that found on analogous native species. This suggests that enemy release may not fully explain the invasive success of A. donax in South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This study aimed to investigate the potential of energy crops for biomethane production by examining the influence of abattoir and municipal wastewater irrigation on biomass production and the Biochemical Methane Potential (BMP). The experiments covered seven energy crops including sugar beet, alfalfa, maize, giant reed, napier grass, sunflower and canola. The biomass was harvested at three months of planting and BMP of each energy crops was assessed using anaerobic digestion. Giant reed yielded the highest biomass (22.3 t ha−1) from A800 treatment compared to the other species. The best performance for BMP (793.56 Nml CH 4 g VS−1) was recorded for maize biomass irrigated with abattoir wastewater which is equivalent to gross energy yield 1041 GJ ha−1 yr−1 or electricity yield 284.8 MW h ha−1 yr−1. The digestate samples collected after anaerobic digestion of biomass from plants were analysed for their nutrient value. Nutrient content of digestates varied between energy crops, waste water sources and irrigation levels. The highest nitrate content was measured for giant reed (A800) and phosphate and sulphate contents for sugar beet leaf (A800). The results indicated that wastewater sources can be used to grow energy crops, thereby producing biomethane for energy and digestate for plant nutrition through anaerobic digestion process. Graphical abstract Image 1 Highlights • Biomass yield influenced by wastewater type and was highest in abattoir wastewater. • BMP was significantly influenced by wastewater type and irrigation rate. • The highest BMP was achieved for maize with abattoir wastewater treatment. • Maize with abattoir wastewater produced highest gross energy or electricity yield. • Both wastewater type and irrigation rates affected the nutrient value of digestates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work aims to apply a combination of fractional factorial design (FFD) and Doehlert design to determine the operational conditions allowing to study the adsorption process applied for dimethylphthalate (DMP) elimination from aqueous solution. The Arundo donax stems plant are used to prepare various activated carbons. The investigated parameters and their levels are impregnation rate ( r = 2 - 4 ), activating agent concentration ( C act = 30 - 50 % ), activation time ( t act = 2-4h), carbonization temperature ( T carb = 300 - 500 ∘ C ), mixture temperature ( T = 25 - 35 ∘ C ), DMP concentration ( C 0 = 50 - 100 mg L - 1 ) , carbonization time ( t carb = 1 - 2 h ), stirring speed ( v = 200 - 400 rpm ) and activated carbon dose ( m ad = 0.1 - 0.2 g L - 1 ) . The FFD is applied for parameters screening. Two responses are defined: the activated carbon production yield ( Y p ) and DMP elimination yield ( Y e ). When both responses are taken into account, according to the p value, the significant factors are ( m ad ), ( T carb ), ( C act ) with a value < 0.0001, and ( t carb ) with a value of 0.0018. These parameters are considered in optimization process. To choose the most appropriate mathematical model, Mallows criterion, corrected Akaike information criterion, Bayesian information criterion, Amemiya Prediction Criterion and ANOVA are applied. This model presents a saddle point, so the optimal conditions are identified at the study field limits for each parameter, so the optimal values are m ad = 0.100 ± 10 - 3 g L - 1 , T carb = 357 ± 5 ∘ C ; C act = 47 ± 5 % ; tcar = 0.209 ± 0.083 h . Under these conditions, the removal efficiency exceeds 97 ± 3 % and the BET surface area of activated carbon optimal is 1315 m 2 g - 1 . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a variety of crops that may be considered as potential biomass production crops. In order to select the best suitable for cultivation crop for a given area, a number of several factors should be taken into account. During the crop selection process, a common framework should be followed focussing on financial or energy performance. Combining multiple crops and multiple fields for the extraction of the best allocation requires a model to evaluate various and complex factors given a specific objective. This paper studies the maximisation of total energy gained from the biomass production by energy crops, reduced by the energy costs of the production process. The tool calculates the energy balance using multiple crops allocated to multiple fields. Both binary programming and linear programming methods are employed to solve the allocation problem. Each crop is assigned to a field (or a combination of crops are allocated to each field) with the aim of maximising the energy balance provided by the production system. For the demonstration of the tool, a hypothetical case study of three different crops cultivated for a decade (Miscanthus x giganteus , Arundo donax , and Panicum virgatum) and allocated to 40 dispersed fields around a biogas plant in Italy is presented. The objective of the best allocation is the maximisation of energy balance showing that the linear solution is slightly better than the binary one in the basic scenario while focussing on suggesting alternative scenarios that would have an optimal energy balance. • Energy balance estimation in multiple crops and multiple fields. • Multiple crops to fields spatial allocation. • Binary and linear programming solutions. • Optimization according to the optimal energy balance. • Alternative allocation scenarios and comparison with the basic scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the most widespread plant species with clonal reproduction Arundo donax L. represents one of most studied one characterized by very low genetic biodiversity. Although it is a perennial rhizomatous tall grass native to eastern and southern Asia, it spreads only asexually in the invaded range all over the world thriving very well in a large array of pedo-climatic conditions. This ability to morphologically or physiologically adapt to a broad array of conditions could be attributed to epigenetic mechanisms. To shade light on this relevant issue, 96 stems of A. donax from spontaneous populations distributed across the Italian invaded range (island of Sardinia, Northern and Southern Italy) were analysed. Leaf DNAs were extracted and processed through AFLPs and MSAPs for defining either genetic and epigenetic profiles. Both analyses clearly showed that the A. donax populations of Sardinia island are genetically distinct from those of Italian mainland; AFLPs showed an extremely low genetic biodiversity due to vegetative reproduction, whilst, epi-biodiversity, estimated through MSAP marker, increased within the analyzed populations. These results suggest that the capability of A. donax to invade and thrive in diverse environmental conditions can be, at least, partially attributed to a higher epigenetic variability. Therefore, the different DNA methylation status may have significant and important biological meaning, in particular, in the case of invasive clonal plants such as A. donax, also for the biodiversity definition, and MSAP marker can be considered an useful and cost effective marker to reveal it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Promotion of nonfood species production to marginal, degraded lands abandoned by mainstream agriculture is affected by extremes of water availability (droughts and floods), which have increased in frequency and intensity and account for severe yield reduction. Arundo donax L., known as giant cane or giant reed, spontaneously grows in different kinds of environments with limitation to low temperature and is thus widespread in temperate and hot areas around the world. Moreover, this perennial rhizomatous grass has been recognized as a leading candidate crop in the Mediterranean for lignocellulosic feedstock due to its high C3 photosynthetic capacity, positive energy balance and low agroecological management demand. In this study, the photosynthetic performance and growth response of A. donax to waterlogging and submergence stress following a time course as well as their respective re-oxygenation were analyzed under reproducible and controlled environment conditions. Results of growth response showed that biomass production was strongly conditioned by the availability of oxygen. In fact, only waterlogged plants showed similar growth capacity to those under control conditions, while plants under submergence resulted in a dramatic reduction of this trait. The simultaneous measurements of both gas exchanges and chlorophyll fluorescence highlighted an alteration of both stomatal and non-stomatal photosynthetic behaviors during a short/medium period of oxygen deprivation and re-oxygenation. Photosynthetic CO2 uptake was strictly related to a combination of stomatal and mesophyll diffusional constrains, depending on the severity of the treatment and exposure time. Conditions of waterlogging and hypoxia revealed a slight growth plasticity of the species in response to prolonged stress conditions, followed by a fast recovery upon reoxygenation. Moreover, the rapid restoration of physiological functions after O2 deprivation testifies to the environmental plasticity of this species, although prolonged O2 shortage proved detrimental to A. donax by hampering growth and photosynthetic CO2 uptake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Application of sewage sludge to soil is a potentially inexpensive source of nutrition for plants, but may contain undesirable and toxic substances, e.g. heavy metals. Alterations in microbial communities can serve as an environmental indicator of possible soil contamination. We used two molecular fingerprinting methods (Automated Ribosomal Intergenic Spacer Analysis, ARISA and Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism, T-RFLP) to study changes in the genetic diversity of bacterial communities in the rhizosphere of Arundo donax L. cultivated in the soil fertilised with additive based on sewage sludge from wastewater treatment plant and agricultural by-products represented by crushed corn hobs and wastes from grain mill industry. The metagenomic DNA extracted from rhizosphere samples were collected in August and November 2014. The amount of mgDNA was statistically higher in samples with additive than in control samples without it in both dates. The Venn diagrams showed that operational taxonomic units which were common to all samples were represented in 32.8% in ARISA and 43.4% in T-RFLP. However, based on Principal component analysis and subsequent PERMANOVA statistical tests did not confirm significant differences in the rhizosphere of control plants and plants grown in the soil supplemented with sewage sludge in dose 5 and 15 t/ha present in the additive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Ipomoea carnea and Arundo donax can act as potential biomass residue for bioenergy. • The cavitational effect of US assisted the penetration of NaOH into the biomasses. • SEM, XRD and FTIR results showed the effect of pretreatment on lignocellulosic residues. • Ipomoea carnea showed maximum TRS of 294.08 ± 3.98 mg/g and bioethanol yield of 85.04 ± 8.37%. In recent years, research is focused on finding a sustainable and eco-friendly lignocellulosic biomass for the effective production of bioethanol to meet the world's energy demand. The present study investigates the bioethanol production potential of four different lignocellulosic biomass residues viz., Saccharum arundinaceum (hardy sugar cane), Arundo donax (giant reed), Typha angustifolia (narrow-leaved cattail), and Ipomoea carnea (pink morning glory). The maximum reducing sugar release showed 185.00 ± 1.57, 213.73 ± 3.47, 187.57 ± 2.14, 294.08 ± 3.98 mg/g and fermentation efficiency of 72.60 ± 8.17%, 82.59 ± 7.42%, 77.45 ± 7.35%, and 85.04 ± 8.37% which was analyzed by estimating the percentage of bioethanol yield were achieved for Saccharum arundinaceum , Arundo donax , Typha angustifolia , and Ipomoea carnea, respectively. The chemical composition of biomass was characterized using National Renewable Energy Limited (NREL) protocol. The effect of ultrasound (US)-assisted alkaline pre-treatment on the four biomasses was characterized by different techniques. The cavitation phenomena of US-assisted alkaline pre-treatment was evident from the decreased value of lignin percentage, increased surface porosity and area, changes in crystallinity index (CrI) values and in the functional groups of biomass. The results revealed that all the four lignocellulosic biomass residues could be utilized as an effective and sustainable source for the production of bioethanol using US-assisted sodium hydroxide as a pre-treatment tool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract An innovative low-tech solution to fabricate electro-active biochar (e- biochar) electrodes for bio-electrochemical systems (BES) is proposed. Ligno-cellulosic stalks of Giant Cane (Arundo Donax L.) were subjected to pyrolysis treatment at 900 °C for 1 h. The material kept its original hollow cylindrical shape, rigid morphology and porous texture, as confirmed by 3DX-ray micro-computed tomography. These characteristics are suitable for its use at the air-water interface in BES, as air-breathing bio-cathodes. BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) specific surface area was equal to 114 ± 4 m2 g−1, with more than 95% of pores in the microporosity range (pore diameter < 1 nm). Surface electrocatalytic activity was sufficient to sustain oxygen reduction reaction at pH 7, in terms of both onset potential (−0.02 V vs Ag/AgCl) and reduction limiting current density (1 A m−2). Electrical resistivity measurements confirmed sufficient conductivity (8.9 × 10−3 ± 1 × 10−4 Ω m) of the material and Raman spectroscopy allowed to estimate a graphitization degree in relation to the I D /I G , equal to 2.26. In parallel, the e -biochar were tested as air-exposed bio-cathodes in BES, coupled to carbon cloth bio-anodes. After inoculation with wastewater from swine-farming, current densities were generated in the range of 100–150 mA m−2, along more than 2 months of operation, under sodium acetate feeding. Confocal laser scanning imaging revealed consistent biofilm formation on the water-side surface of the cathodes, while a nearly-complete absence of it at the air-side. These e- biochar electrodes might open innovative perspectives to scale-up BES for different applications. Here, consistent salts depositions on the material after 70 days of exposure to the wastewater, suggest that e- biochar biocathodes might serve to recycle nutrients to agricultural soils, through minerals-enriched biochar. Highlights • Rigid carbonaceous cylinders were obtained by 900 °C pyrolysis of Giant Canes. • Pyrolysed Giant Canes possess a microporous texture and are conductive. • Pyrolysed cylinders were used as electro-active biochar-based cathodes (e- biochar). • The need of technological materials in bio-electrochemical systems is reduced. • Salts deposition clogged the porous texture and enriched e- biochar of minerals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Propagation by single-node stem cutting of giant reed (Arundo donax) was attempted. • Nutrients availability on the node plays a key role in rooting development. • In open field, the best period for node excision is July followed by May. • Nodes whose diameter exceed 2 cm showed higher rooting and plantlets development. • IBA resulted effective in promoting rooting in the worst excision dates. Abstract Giant reed (Arundo donax L.) is a warm-season, fast growing lignocellulosic crop suitable to Mediterranean and semi-arid environments. However, its sterility limits a cost-effective propagation along with environmental impacts associated with rhizome processing. In the present study, the effects of intrinsic (node size and node chemical composition) and extrinsic factors (node pretreatment with growth regulators) on root and shoot development were investigated under different excision time of node-cuttings in a controlled and open field conditions. Results indicated that nutrients availability of the propagation material plays a key role in rooting development. To enhance the success of giant reed propagation by single node stem-cuttings, the best period for node excision is July in open field trial, followed by the late spring (May). Nodes whose diameter exceed 2 cm resulted in higher rooting and plantlets development even in the less favorable excision dates. However, when big nodes are adopted in controlled environments even winter periods are eligible, being particularly useful for spring open field transplants of rooted plantlets. Among the growth regulators used in the present study, indole-3-butyric acid - IBA (in controlled environment) resulted effective in promoting rooting particularly in the worse excision date (April); in open field, IBA significantly improved rooting in the excision dates of February and May in the big nodes, and only in February in the small ones. NAA (1-naphthaleneacetic acid) was almost ineffective in enhancing rooting as compared to the control. The present study might open a new perspective to overcome one of the most significant drawbacks to establish giant reed, namely its agamic propagation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Four grasses were compared under different N fertilization rates and harvest times. • Winter harvest improved combustion quality of miscanthus, switchgrass and giant reed. • Autumn harvest improved combustion quality of bulbous canary grass. • Giant reed had a highest slagging tendency among crops. Abstract In order to develop sustainable biomass production, bioenergy crops should have both high biomass productivity and good combustion quality. In this study, we investigated the effects of different N fertilization rates (0, 100, 150, and 200 kg ha–1y–1) and harvest times (autumn and winter) on the chemical compositions of 4 promising bioenergy crops (miscanthus, switchgrass, giant reed, and bulbous canary grass) in southern Turkey, over 3 growing seasons. All of the crops tested in the study showed a positive response to N fertilization. However, N fertilization significantly decreased the Si content in all of crops. Moreover, in miscanthus, switchgrass, and bulbous canary grass, the lignin content was considerably increased by 100 kg N ha–1y–1, while additional N fertilizer rates did not cause any further significant increases in the lignin content. On the other hand, the winter harvest significantly reduced all of the mineral contents (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, and Si) in miscanthus, switchgrass, and giant reed, while the opposite trend was observed for bulbous canary grass. Our results may indicate that miscanthus had a better combustion quality than the other crops because it generally had the lowest mineral contents and highest Ca/K and Si/K ratios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Giant reed (Arundo donax L.) is a perennial rhizomatous grass, which has attracted great attention as a potential lignocellulosic feedstock for bioethanol production due to high biomass yield in marginal land areas, high polysaccharide content and low inhibitor levels in microbial fermentations. However, little is known about the trait variation that is available across a broad ecotypic panel of A. donax nor the traits that contribute most significantly to yield and growth in drought prone environments. A collection of 82 ecotypes of A. donax sampled across the Mediterranean basin was planted in a common garden experimental field in Savigliano, Italy. We analysed the collection using 367 clumps representing replicate plantings of 82 ecotypes for variation in 21 traits important for biomass accumulation and to identify the particular set of ecotypes with the most promising potential for biomass production. We measured morpho‐physiological, phenological and biomass traits and analysed causal relationships between traits and productivity characteristics assessed at leaf and canopy levels. The results identified differences among the 82 ecotypes for all studied traits: those showing the highest level of variability included stomatal resistance, stem density (StN), stem dry mass (StDM) and total biomass production (TotDM). Multiple regression analysis revealed that leaf area index, StDM, StN, number of nodes per stem, stem height and diameter were the most significant predictors of TotDM and the most important early selection criteria for bioenergy production from A. donax. These traits were used in a hierarchical cluster analysis to identify groups of similar ecotypes, and a selection was made of promising ecotypes for multiyear and multisite testing for biomass production. Heritability estimates were significant for all traits. The potential of this ecotype collection as a resource for studies of germplasm diversity and for the analysis of traits underpinning high productivity of A. donax is highlighted. A broad Euro‐Mediterranean panel of 82 ecotypes of giant reed (Arundo donax L.) were phenotyped in a common garden experimental field in Italy. Twenty one morpho‐physiological, phenological and biomass traits were measured and causal relationships were analysed between traits and productivity characteristics at leaf and canopy levels. Multiple regression analysis revealed that leaf area index, stem dry mass, stem density, number of nodes per stem, stem height, and diameter were the most significant predictors of total biomass production and the most important early selection criteria for bioenergy production from A. donax. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The giant reed and the cork are good natural insulation materials and their use is an excellent solution to reduce agricultural waste. • The saved energy by the use of agglomerated cork walls for the envelope of buildings is more than 75% of the energy spent than building with brick walls. • The environmental effects of the disposed wastes of building components in giant reed or cork are lower than other building materials. • CO 2 production for heating and cooling the building was: 2517 kg for brick walls, 623 kg for cork walls and 1905 kg for giant reed walls. Abstract The environmental impact of buildings has to be assessed not only in reference to the energy consumed by their use but also with reference to the energy inside materials with which they are made of. The "Sick Building Syndrome" (SBS) is increasing. It was discovered that the major causes are linked to chemical contaminants from indoor sources such as building materials, inadequate ventilation, excessive use of Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The insulation building materials have a relevant role in the SBS for the capacity, not only to limit the use of HVAC but also to limit the emission of pollutants inside a building environment. The present paper reports an up- to- date review of some innovative uses of wastes deriving from agricultural production in order to build walls and partitions for Mediterranean houses. Some test methods of building elements, made with giant reed and agglomerate cork which are two typical natural materials of the Mediterranean area, are illustrated. These vegetal materials are often residues deriving from agricultural production, the agricultural residues are often a problem for farmers or firms because the organic wastes are considered dangerous and the disposal of such material is very expensive, therefore the reuse of the wastes is the best way to recycle these materials. This paper analyzes a cavity wall panel made with a wood skeleton on which two double crossed layers of giant reed stems were fixed and a multilayer agglomerated cork wall with a double cavity multilayer BOTH 20CM THICK. The dynamic thermal analysis carried out for the houses with the proposed walls highlights a better environmental performance of buildings with agglomerated cork and with giant reed walls rather than brick walls. The production of CO 2 for the indoor environmental thermal control of the house with giant reed walls is less than 1/2 and the house with agglomerated cork walls is less than 1/4 compared to the brick wall house. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The biogas production through the anaerobic digestion (AD) of giant reed (Arundo donax L.) biomass has received increasing attention. However, due to the presence of lignin, a low CH4 yield can be obtained. Aiming to improve the CH4 yield from giant reed biomass, the effectiveness of a thermo-chemical pre-treatment based on KOH was evaluated in this paper. The usefulness of a washing step before the AD was also assessed. The pre-treatment led to a specific CH4 yield up to 232 mL CH4 g−1 VS which was 21% higher than that from untreated biomass; the maximum daily rate of production was improved by 42%, AD duration was reduced by 10%, and CH4 concentration in the biogas was increased by 23%. On the contrary, the washing step did not improve the AD process. Besides, washing away the liquid fraction led to biomass losses, reducing the overall CH4 production. The use of a KOH-based pre-treatment appears as a good option for enhancing the AD of giant reed, also presenting potential environmental and agronomical benefits, like the avoidance of salty wastewater production and the likely improvement of the digestate quality, due to its enriched K content.

Arundo scale, Rhizaspidiotus donacis (Leonardi) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae), is an armored scale biological control agent established on the invasive weed, Arundo donax L. (Poaceae; Arundinoideae) at several locations along the Rio Grande in Texas (Goolsby et. al. 2009, Moran and Goolsby 2010, Goolsby et al. 2011, Villarreal et al. 2016). The arundo scale is having significant impact on the target weed in areas where it established (Goolsby and Moran 2019), and no non-target plant use was observed (Goolsby et al. 2020). Armored scale crawlers usually live for less than a day and settle within 1 m of their sessile mother (Beardsley and Gonzalez 1975). Their low level of dispersion led to biological studies of the arundo scale in quarantine before release to quantify aspects of its biology that influenced dispersal. We measured walking velocity, estimated the potential distance a crawler could travel during a 12-hour period, and variations of the attributes for crawlers that emerged over time from different geographical accessions. The information was used to prioritize populations for release at field sites or nearby rearing facility. Three accessions of R. donacis crawlers from France, Italy, and Greece were evaluated (Table 1). Crawlers of each accession were isolated as individuals in gelatin capsules on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday mornings and kept for observation in the laboratory at 23ºC and 50% relative humidity. Crawlers in gelatin capsules were observed with the aid of a dissecting microscope (Leica MZ-16). Distances walked were measured using a stage micrometer during 10-second periods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]