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The solvent dependence of the gelation properties, the thermotropic behavior, and the melting enthalpy of a series of enantiomerically pure cyclohexane-based bisamide and bisurea compounds are reported. The two series of gelators examined are related structurally with the intermolecular interactions responsible for gelation differing in a systematic manner through varying the length of the alkyl tail and the number of hydrogen bonding units present. The gelation properties of the compounds in decalin, DMSO, and 1-propanol were studied by FTIR spectroscopy and by comparison of the thermal stability of their gels as determired by dropping ball experiments and by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). FTIR spectroscopy, Supported by the single-crystal X-ray diffraction of a3, indicates that the gelator molecules are aggregated through intermolecular hydrogen bonding in all of the solvents examined. The thermal stability of the gels in apolar and polar solvents was found to be dependent primarily on the relative strength of intermolecular hydrogen bonding and van der Waals interactions, respectively, compared with the strength of solvent-gelator interactions. The results of DSC indicated that the contribution of the difference in intergelator van der Waals interactions, compared with the gelator-solvent van der Waals and hydrogen bonding interactions, provided by the alkyl tail to the stability of the gel has a linear relationship with the number of methylene units in alkyl chains of length greater than six. In polar solvents, this contribution lies between 3.5 and 4.2 kJ mol(-1) per methylene unit, and in apolar solvents, it is 2.2 kJ mol(-1). The hydrogen bonding interactions were weaker in polar solvents and hence gelation occurred only where sufficient compensation was provided by intergelator van der Waals interactions. The results show that the direct relation of gelation strength to changes in solvent properties is not possible and more complex relationships should be considered. Furthermore, it is apparent that the development of design rules for the construction of LMWG molecules incorporating more than one anisotropic growth element must take into consideration the role of the solvent in determining which of the contributions is dominant.

A practical method for the multigram scale selective cis-dihydroxylation of electron deficient alkenes such as diethyl fumarate and N-alkyl and N-aryl-maleimides using H(2)O(2) is described. High turnovers (1000) can be achieved with this efficient manganese based catalyst system, prepared in situ from a manganese salt, pyridine-2-carboxylic acid, a ketone and a base, under ambient conditions. Under optimized conditions, for diethyl fumarate at least 1000 turnovers could be achieved with only 1.5 equiv. of H(2)O(2) with d/l-diethyl tartrate (cis-diol product) as the sole product. For electron rich alkenes, such as cis-cyclooctene, this catalyst provides for efficient epoxidation.

A number of manganese-based catalysts employing ligands whose structures incorporate pyridyl groups have been reported previously to achieve both high turnover numbers and selectivity in the oxidation of alkenes and alcohols, using H(2)O(2) as terminal oxidant. Here we report our recent finding that these ligands decompose in situ to pyridine-2-carboxylic acid and its derivatives, in the presence of a manganese source, H(2)O(2) and a base. Importantly, the decomposition occurs prior to the onset of catalysed oxidation of organic substrates. It is found that the pyridine-2-carboxylic acid formed, together with a manganese source, provides for the observed catalytic activity. The degradation of this series of pyridyl ligands to pyridine-2-carboxylic acid under reaction conditions is demonstrated by (1)H NMR spectroscopy. In all cases the activity and selectivity of the manganese/pyridyl containing ligand systems are identical to that observed with the corresponding number of equivalents of pyridine-2-carboxylic acid; except that, when pyridine-2-carboxylic acid is used directly, a lag phase is not observed and the efficiency in terms of the number of equivalents of H(2)O(2) required decreases from 6-8 equiv. with the pyridin-2-yl based ligands to 1-1.5 equiv. with pyridine-2-carboxylic acid.

Diarylethenes with two different side groups (phenyl and chloro) were appended to both alpha-ends of a sexithiophene unit. The temperature dependent aggregation properties for both compounds were characterized by steady state and transient absorption spectroscopy. The peripheral side groups show an unexpectedly significant influence on the electronic properties of the sexithiophene core. Furthermore, the relative influence of the phenyl and chloro substituents on the aggregation behavior observed is remarkable. The phenyl compound exhibits formation of H-aggregates over a narrow temperature range, between 240 and 200 K, typical of strong intermolecular interactions. In contrast, the chloro compound shows gradual aggregation over a wide temperature range, forming H-aggregates albeit with weaker intermolecular interactions. The results demonstrate that minor changes in the structure lead to tunability of the aggregation and corresponding luminescence properties of sexithiophenes in solution and hold particular relevance to supramolecular and polymer systems based on sexithiophene units.

A review on the recent developments in the field of chiroptical switches and nanomotors. Topics discussed include switching of mol. state, azobenzene-based chiroptical photoswitching, electrochiroptical switching, diarylethene-based chiroptical switches, mol. switching with circularly polarized light, diastereomeric photochromic switches, chiroptical switching of luminescence, switching of supramol. organization and assemblies, mol. motors, chiral mol. machines, and making nanoscale machines work. [on SciFinder(R)]

Smart surfaces, surfaces that respond to an external stimulus in a defined manner, hold considerable potential as components in molecular-based devices, not least as discrete switching elements. Many stimuli can be used to switch surfaces between different states, including redox, light, pH, and ion triggers. The present review focuses on molecular switching through the electronic excitation of molecules on surfaces with light. In developing light-responsive surfaces, investigators face several challenges, not only in achieving high photostationary states and fully reversible switching, but also in dealing with fatigue resistance and the effect of immobilization itself on molecular properties. The immobilization of light-responsive molecules requires the design and synthesis of functional molecular components both to achieve light switching and to anchor the molecular entity onto a surface. This review discusses several demonstrative examples of photoswitchable molecular systems in which the photochemistry has been explored in the immobilized state under ambient conditions and especially on electroactive surfaces, including self-assembled monolayers, bilayers, and polymer films.

The combination of a photochemical and a thermal equilibrium in overcrowded alkenes, which is the basis for unidirectional rotation of light-driven molecular rotary motors, is analysed in relation to the actual average rotation rates of such structures. Experimental parameters such as temperature, concentration and irradiation intensity could be related directly to the effective rates of rotation that are achieved in solution by means of photochemical and thermal reaction rate theory. It is found that molecular properties, including absorption characteristics and photochemical quantum yields, are of less importance to the overall rate of rotation than the experimental parameters. This analysis holds considerable implications in the design of experimental conditions for functional molecular systems that will rely on high rates of rotation, and shows that average rotation rates comparable to ATPase or flagella motors are within reach assuming common experimental parameters.

A bifunctional substituted dithienylcyclopentene photochromic switch bearing electropolymerisable methoxystyryl units, which enable immobilization of the photochromic unit on conducting substrates, is reported. The spectroscopic, electrochemical, and photochemical properties of a monomer in solution are compared with those of the polymer formed through oxidative electropolymerization. The electroactive polymer films prepared on gold, platinum, glassy carbon, and indium titanium oxide (ITO) electrodes were characterized by cyclic voltammetry, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The thickness of the films formed is found to be limited to several monolayer equivalents. The photochromic properties and stability of the polymer films have been investigated by UV/vis spectroscopy, electrochemistry, and XPS. Although the films are electrochemically and photochemically stable, their mechanical stability with respect to adhesion to the electrode was found to be sensitive to both the solvent and the electrode material employed, with more apolar solvents, glassy carbon, and ITO electrodes providing good adhesion of the polymer film. The polymer film is formed consistently as a thin film and can be switched both optically and electrochemically between the open and closed state of the photochromic dithienylethene moiety.

The synthesis and characterisation of a coumarin-dithienylcyclopentene-coumarin symmetric triad (CSC) and a perylene bisimide-dithienylcyclopentene-coumarin asymmetric triad (PSC) are reported. In both triads the switching function of the photochromic dithienylcyclopentene unit is retained. For CSC an overall 50% quenching of the coumarin fluorescence is observed upon ring-closure of the dithienylcyclopentene component, which, taken together with the low PSS (

High turnover enantioselective alkene cis-dihydroxylation is achieved with H2O2 catalysed by manganese based complexes containing chiral carboxylato ligands. © The Royal Society of Chemistry.

The role played by the additives salicylic acid, L-ascorbic acid and oxalic acid in promoting the catalytic activity of [Mn(IV) (2)(O)(3)(tmtacn)(2)](PF(6))(2) {1(PF(6))(2), where tmtacn = N, N ', N ''-trimethyl-1,4,7-triazacyclononane} in the epoxidation and cis-dihydroxylation of alkenes with H(2)O(2) and in suppressing the catalysed decomposition of H2O2 is examined. Whereas aliphatic and aromatic carboxylic acids effect enhancement of the catalytic activity of 1 through the in situ formation dinuclear carboxylato bridged complexes of the type [ Mn(III) (2)(mu-O)(mu-RCO(2))(2)(tmtacn)(2)](2+), for L-ascorbic acid and oxalic acid notable differences in reactivity are observed. Although for L-ascorbic acid key differences in the spectroscopic properties of the reaction mixtures are observed compared with carboxylic acids, the involvement of carboxylic acids formed in situ is apparent. For oxalic acid the situation is more complex with two distinct catalyst systems in operation; the first, which engages in epoxidation only, is dominant until the oxalic acid additive is consumed completely at which point carboxylic acids formed in situ take on the role of additives to form a second distinct catalyst system, i.e. that which was observed for alkyl and aromatic carboxylic acids, which yield both cis-diol and epoxide products.

In the presence of carboxylic acids the complex [Mn-2(IV)(mu-O)(3)(tmtacn)(2)](2+) (1, where tmtacn = N,N',N"-trimethyl-1,4,7-triazacyclononane) is shown to be highly efficient in catalyzing the oxidation of alkenes to the corresponding cis-diol and epoxide with H2O2 as terminal oxidant. The selectivity of the catalytic system with respect to (w.r.t.) either cis-dihydroxylation or epoxidation of alkenes is shown to be dependent on the carboxylic acid employed. High turnover numbers (t.o.n. > 2000) can be achieved especially w.r.t. cis-dihydroxylation for which the use of 2,6-dichlorobenzoic acid allows for the highest t.o.n. reported thus far for cis-dihydroxylation of alkenes catalyzed by a first-row transition metal and high efficiency w.r.t. the terminal oxidant (H2O2). The high activity and selectivity is due to the in situ formation of bis(mu-carboxylato)-bridged dinuclear manganese(III) complexes. Tuning of the activity of the catalyst by variation in the carboxylate ligands is dependent on both the electron-withdrawing nature of the ligand and on steric effects. By contrast, the cis-diol/epoxide selectivity is dominated by steric factors. The role of solvent, catalyst oxidation state, H2O, and carboxylic acid concentration and the nature of the carboxylic acid employed on both the activity and the selectivity of the catalysis are explored together with speciation analysis and isotope labeling studies. The results confirm that the complexes of the type [Mn-2(mu-O)(mu-R-CO2)(2)(tmtacn)(2)](2+), which show remarkable redox and solvent-dependent coordination chemistry, are the resting state of the catalytic system and that they retain a dinuclear structure throughout the catalytic cycle. The mechanistic understanding obtained from these studies holds considerable implications for both homogeneous manganese oxidation catalysis and in understanding related biological systems such as dinuclear catalase and arginase enzymes.

Rational design of supramolecular systems for application in photonic devices requires a clear understanding of both the mechanism of energy and electron transfer processes and how these processes can be manipulated. Central to achieving these goals is a detailed picture of their electronic structure and of the interaction between the constituent components. We review several approaches that have been taken towards gaining such understanding, with particular focus on the physical techniques employed. In the discussion, case studies are introduced to illustrate the key issues under consideration.

Tetra-peri-(tert-butyl-benzo)-di-peri-(pyrimidino)-coronene 1, the parent compound of the nitrogen heterosuperbenzene family N-HSB, is employed as a novel monotopic ligand in the formation of [Pd(eta(3)-C3H5)(1)]PF6 2 and [Ru(bpy)(2)(1)](PF6)(2) (where bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine 3a and d(8)-2,2'-bipyridine 3b). These N-coordinated complexes are fully characterized by H-1 NMR and IR spectroscopy and ESI-MS. Metal coordination has a profound effect on both the absorption and the emission properties of 1. Pd(II) coordination causes a red-shift in the low-energy absorptions, a decrease in the intensity of the n-pi* absorptions, and a quenching of the emission. Ru(II) coordination causes absorption throughout the visible region and creates two new complexes that join an elite group of compounds known as "black" absorbers. 3a and 3b possess two discernible (MLCT)-M-1 bands. The one of exceptionally low energy (lambda(max) = 615 nm) has an associated (MLCT)-M-3 emission ( lambda(max) = 880 nm) due to the unprecedented electron delocalization and acceptor properties of the rigid aromatic N-HSB 1. Both Ru(II) complexes are near-IR emitters with unusually protracted emission lifetimes of 320 ns at 77 K. They are photochemically inert, and their electrochemical properties are consistent with the presence of a low-lying pi* orbital on 1. The first two reversible reductions (E-1/2 (CH3CN), -0.54 V, -1.01 V vs SCE) are due to the stepwise reduction of 1 and are anodically shifted as compared to [Ru(bpy)(3)](2+). Temperature- and concentration-dependent NMR studies on 2 and 3a suggest extensive aggregation is occurring in solution.

The electrochemical behaviour of three tri-cyanovinylated pyrrole species namely, 2- tricyanovinyl-pyrrole (C4H4N-C5N3), 2-tricyanovinyl-N-methylpyrrole (C5H6N-C5N3) and 2- tricyanovinyl-N-phenylpyrrole (C10H8N-C5N3), has been studied. All compounds were found to exhibit both an irreversible oxidation at more positive potentials compared to the unsubstituted monomer species and a reversible reduction redox couple associated with reduction of the co-ordinated cyano ligands. The latter reductions of the tricyanovinylated compounds to their radical anions at platinum, carbon and gold electrodes in acetonitrile solution have been studied by cyclic voltammetry, using a variety of supporting electrolytes.The half-wave potentials for each compound were found to be dependent upon the supporting electrolyte but independent of the nature of the electrode surface. This is attributed to ion-pairing between the anions and the alkali metal cations. The reduction based redox processes for the C10H8N-C5N3 and C5H6N-C5N3 compounds were found to be facile in nature and independent of both the nature of the electrolyte and electrode surface. However the reduction of C4H4N-C5N3 was found to be irreversible in nature. Attempts were made to elucidate, by both electrochemical and spectroscopic means, the structure of the products obtained upon oxidation of the tricyanovinylated compounds.

The synthesis and characterisation of [Ru(bipy)(2)(L1)](2+) and the homodinuclear complexes [M(bipy)(2)(L1)M(bipy)(2)](4+) (where M=Ru or Os), employing the ditopic ligand, 1,4-phenylene-bis(1-pyridin-2-ylimidazo [1,5-a] pyridine) (L1), are reported. The complexes are identified by elemental analysis, UV/Vis, emission, resonance Raman, transient resonance Raman and H-1 NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry and electrochemistry. The X-ray structure of the complex [Ru(bipy)(2)(L1)(bipy)(2)Ru](PF6)(4) is also reported. DFT calculations, carried out to model the electronic properties of the compounds, are in good agreement with experiment. Minimal communication between the metal centres is observed. The low level of ground state electronic interaction is rationalized in terms of the poor ability of the phenyl spacer in facilitating superexchange interactions. Using the electronic and electrochemical data a detailed picture of the electronic properties of the RuRu compound is presented.

Catalytic alkane oxidation with high selectivity using peracids and an (N4Py)Fe complex is presented and the role of [(N4Py)Fe(IV)=O]2+ species, molecular oxygen and hydroxyl radicals in the catalysis is discussed.

A novel ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complex connected covalently to a bolaamphiphile, containing amide linkages to provide rigidity via hydrogen bonding in the monolayer, has been prepared. The ruthenium( II) complexes of this ligand and of the intermediates in the synthesis were prepared by modi. cation of the coordinated ligands, demonstrating the synthetic versatility and robustness of this family of complexes. All ruthenium complexes were characterised by electrochemical and spectroscopic techniques and were found to have similar properties to the parent complex [Ru(bipy)(3)](2+), and remain versatile photosensitisers, with well-defined properties, despite extensive substitution of the bipy ligand.

The ligands HL1 and H(2)L2 and the complexes [Ru(bipy)(2)L1]PF6.2H(2)O 1, [(Ru(bipy)(2))(2)L2](PF6)(2).7H(2)O 2, {where HL1 = 3-(2', 5'-dimethoxyphenyl)-5-(pyridin-2"-yl)- 1H-1,2,4-triazole, H(2)L2 = 1,4- bis(5'-(pyridin-2"-yl)- 1'H- 1', 2', 4'-triazol-3'-yl)- 2,5-dimethoxybenzene and bipy = 2,2'-bipyridyl}, have been prepared and characterised, by NMR, UV-vis and emission spectroscopies and by electrochemical measurements. X-Ray crystal structures of ligands HL1, H(2)L2 and of the complex 1 are also reported. The dinuclear complex (2) exhibits a weak electronic interaction between the metal centres, which is modulated by the protonation state of the 1,2,4- triazole rings. The extent of the metal-metal interaction in these systems is compared with that observed in other pyridyl-1,2,4- triazole based dinuclear compounds of differing metal-metal distances.

In this contribution the polymerization of terthiophene, to form an alkene bridged alpha,alpha-coupled sexithiophene polymer, is controlled by light; i.e. the electropolymerizability of the monomer 1F is switched off and on with UV and visible light, respectively. The system comprises of both bis-terthiophene and photochromic dithienylethene units. The presence of a light-switchable unit allows on-off switching of the electropolymerization of the monomer with light. Furthermore the incorporation of the dithienylethene in the polymer backbone increases dramatically the homogenity of the polymer formed (i.e., only sexithiophene units are formed). The derived films are robust and fully retain electrochromic behavior as has been demonstrated through cyclic voltammetry while spatial control (patterning) is readily achieved by applying simple optical masking techniques.

It will take a concerted effort for nanomachines to express themselves on a macroscopic scale. Could self-organizing helical polymers help?

The fully reversible three-state blue/red/off emission from photo-/electrochromic substituted bis-thiaxanthylidenes is reported. The blue luminescence of the most stable (anti-folded) conformer of dimethyl- and dimethoxy-bis-thiaxanthylidene can be switched off by photochemical conversion to the meta-stable (syn-folded) conformer and switched on again by thermal reversion to the anti-folded state. The red luminescence of the bis-thiaxanthylium dication can be switched on by oxidation at approximately 1.0 and 1.2 V vs SCE of the syn- and anti-folded conformers respectively and switched off or to blue by reduction at approximately 0.35 V vs SCE.

We report transient absorption spectroscopic studies on the hybrid material composed of porphyrin molecules covalently attached to graphene for investigating the mechanism underlying the reported fluorescence quenching of porphyrin in the hybrid [1]. Excited state dynamics of pure graphene suspension and porphyrin have also been studied as reference samples. A fast excited state decay was observed in the hybrid.

The excited-state properties of the transition metal complexes tris(2,2'-bipyridine) ruthenium(II) and tris(4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline) ruthenium(II) are examined using picosecond time-resolved luminescence spectroscopy. For both complexes, direct observation of a short-lived high-energy emission with a lifetime of less than 4 ps is reported. Upon deuteriation of the complexes the lifetime of the high-energy emission shows a marked increase with a biexponential decay (20 and approximately 300 ps components). Examination by time-resolved excited-state resonance Raman shows that for the perprotio complexes features attributable to the 3MLCT excited state are formed within 4 ps, while for the perdeuterio a rise time of approximately 20 ps is observed in the 3MLCT features. The results indicate that the emission in both cases may be 1MLCT in origin and are discussed with respect to heterogeneous electron transfer.

A dispersion of graphene in ethanol was achieved using solvent exchange from N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) that enables broader application of dispersed graphene.

A series of binuclear ruthenium and osmium complexes [(bipy)2Ru(qpy)Ru(bipy)2]4+ (1), [(bipy)2-Os(qpy)Os(bipy)2]4+ (2), [(bipy)2Ru(pytr-bipy)Ru(bipy)2]3+ (3), [(bipy)2Ru(pytr-bipy)Os(bipy)2]3+ (4), [(bipy)2Os(pytr-bipy)Ru(bipy)2]3+ (5) and [(bipy)2Os(bpbt)Os(bipy)2]2+ (6) {bipy = 2,2'-bipyridyl; qpy = 2,2': 5',5'':2'',2'''-quaterpyridyl; pytr-bipy = 3-(2,2'-bipyrid-6-yl)-5-(pyrid-2-yl)-1,2,4-triazolato, and bpbt = 5,5'-bis-(pyrid-2''- yl)-3,3'-bis-1,2,4-triazolato} are reported. Analysis of the electrochemical data focuses on structural factors and on determining the extent of electronic communication between the metal centres in the mixed valence oxidation state. Intervalence charge transfer (IT) bands could be identified in the spectra of the complexes 4 and 6 only. Analysis of their spectroelectrochemical data leads to the conclusion that the IT is superexchange mediated through the HOMO of the bridging ligand.

Visible light driven decarbonylation of [(mu(2)-alkyne)Co(2)(CO)(6)] complexes enables the formation of cyclopentenones in good yields at ambient temperatures.

Light driven molecular motors based on sterically overcrowded alkenes achieve repetitive unidirectional rotation through a sequential series of photochemical and thermal steps. The influence of highly viscous environments on the functioning of unidirectional light driven molecular motors is established in the present report using three distinct media. Liquefied propane, a reference medium due to its low viscosity even at 85 K, and two binary solvent systems that undergo a well-defined glass-transition are used to evaluate the influence of glass-like viscosities on both photochemical equilibria and on thermal helix inversion in the molecular motors. It is found that the greater molecular volume of the stable conformations relative to the unstable conformations is responsible for a shift of the photochemical equilibrium from 20% to 100% in favour of the unstable form when irradiated in high viscosity media. These results demonstrate the critical role excluded solvent volume can play in immobilized photo responsive molecular systems. The volume expansion associated with the thermal reversal to the most stable isomer can be used to determine the maximum possible power output of the rotary cycle.

The early picosecond time scale excited-state dynamics of the paradigm tris(2,2'-bipyridyl)Ruthenium(II) ([Ru(bpy)(3)](2+)) and related complexes have been examined by picosecond Kerr-gated time-resolved resonance Raman (ps-TR3) spectroscopy. The evolution of the signature Raman bands of the lowest thermally equilibrated excited(THEXI) state under two-color pump/probe conditions show that this state is not fully populated within several hundred femtoseconds as proposed previously but rather only within the first 20 ps following excitation. In addition to an emission observed within the instrument rise time (tau

The reactivity towards H2O2 of the complexes [Fe(pca)(2)(py)(2)]center dot py (1) and Na-2{[Fe(pca(3))](2)O}center dot 2H(2)O center dot CH3CN (2) (where pca(-) is pyrazine-2-carboxylate) and their catalytic activity in the oxidation of hydrocarbons is reported. Addition of H2O2 to 1 results in the formation of a dinuclear Fe(III)-(mu-O)-Fe(III) species characterized spectroscopically and by cyclic voltammetry. By contrast, treatment of 2 with H2O2 results in the formation of mononuclear iron(II) complexes, [Fe(pca)(2)(solvent)(2)]. The experimental results indicate that the catalytic activity of the starting complexes 1 and 2 is strongly dependent on the species formed in solution.

The synthesis and photochemical characterization of bi-component molecular switches based on covalently tethered dithienylethene photochromes is described. Both photochromic units undergo complete switching between the fully cyclised and fully non-cyclised states despite a significant level of electronic communication between the individual units and their proximity.

The synthesis and characterisation of a novel coumarin donor-perylene bisimide acceptor light-harvesting system is reported, in which an energy-transfer efficiency of > 99% is achieved. Comparison of the excited-state properties of the donor-acceptor system with model compounds revealed that although the photophysical properties of the perylene bisimide acceptor unit are affected considerably by the nature of the substituent at the imide positions and the solvent employed, through-bond interaction between the donor and acceptor units is negligible. Energy transfer in the present system can be described as occurring via a through-space energy-transfer mechanism. Careful consideration of the redox properties of the donor relative to the acceptor units allows for avoidance of potentially deleterious excited-state electron-transfer processes.

A molecular approach to the powering of multi-component nano-devices capable of autonomous translational and rotational motion through the conversion of chemical to kinetic energy is reported.