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Few studies have examined outcomes of prison-based treatment programs over a 5-year observation period. The present analysis was based on a sample of 715 prisoners randomly assigned either to the Amity therapeutic community program or to a notreatment group. At 5-years postrelease, 90% of the original participants were located and 81% were interviewed. The main findings were based on a conservative intent-to-treat approach. On measures of recidivism, the Amity treatment group had significantly lower rates of reincarceration than the control group, but in multivariate analysis of time to first reincarceration, this main treatment effect disappeared and other factors (age and postrelease treatment) became significant predictors of delayed time to reincarceration. As in previous reports on this cohort, those who attended aftercare had lower levels of reincarceration, longer time to reincarceration, and higher levels of employment.

Basic, process, and outcome research have the potential to inform clinical practice. However, as D. Westen, C. M. Novotny, and H. Thompson-Brenner observed in their timely analysis, the current dominant paradigm for psychotherapy outcome research--the randomized clinical trial--is not fulfilling this potential. The field's reliance on the medical model and manual-based interventions has contributed to the gap between research and clinical practice. Greater collaboration between practitioners and researchers, a focus on therapeutic principles rather than treatment packages, and systemic changes in how scholarly efforts are reinforced are needed to shift the current research paradigm.

This article presents an example of how school time was monitored to facilitate a cost analysis of school-wide systems of positive behavior support (PBS). The article provides descriptions of how (a) PBS efforts were initiated in the school, (b) time and money were spent preparing for and implementing PBS, and (c) changes in behavior referrals and suspension were used to evaluate the effect of PBS on the larger system. The results indicated a positive as- sessment of PBS based on predetermined criteria. The discussion focuses on larger issues of cost analyses as systemic evaluation tools for assessing lifestyle change. Terr ance M. Scott

Children with disabilities pose unique challenges for occupational therapists when the value of therapy programmes and the child's individual progress are being evaluated. Children whose development is atypical may make progress through a course of intervention and/or maturation, yet standardised tests frequently used by occupational therapists are often not sensitive enough to detect these changes. In this current climate of economic rationalism and accountability, providing documentary evidence of occupational therapy programme benefits is essential. This paper addresses the utility of goal attainment scaling for objectively and systematically documenting the outcomes of occupational therapy intervention. Goal attainment scaling provides a direct, reliable and accurate method of assessing treatment-induced client change. The process of goal attainment scaling is described and the literature on goal attainment scaling in paediatrics is reviewed. It is concluded that goal attainment scaling is a useful clinical process and measure of therapy programme outcomes for children with disabilities.

This meta-analysis synthesized the results from test anxiety reduction programs. Analyses were based on 56 studies ( n = 2,482); the overall mean effect size (ES) for test anxiety reduction programs was E++ = 0.65 (95 percent confidence intervals [CI] + 0.58 to 0.73). On measures of anxiety reduction, the average individual completing treatment is seen as better off than 74 percent of those individuals who did not receive treatment. The treatment of test anxiety has been quite successful in reducing the test anxiety level of clients. The most effective treatments appear to be those that combine skill-focussed approaches with behaviour or cognitive approaches. Individually conducted programs, along with programs that combined individual and group counselling formats, produced the greatest changes. There is a serious lack of research on test anxiety reduction programs for primary, secondary and high school students.

Current systems for listing empirically supported therapies (ESTs) provide recognition to treatment packages, many of them proprietary and trademarked, without regard to the principles of change believed to account for their effectiveness. Our position is that any authoritative body representing the science and profession of psychology should work solely toward the identification of empirically supported principles of change (ESPs). As challenging as it is to take this approach, a system that lists ESPs will keep a focus on issues central to the science and practice of psychology while also insulating the profession from undue entrepreneurial influences.

As the empirically supported treatment (EST) effort has expanded, there are efforts to make the study of ESTs a more integral part of training programs. In its present form, the EST list provides a poor model of how to evaluate treatment and scientific issues related to our field. This article offers several suggestions regarding how to establish a more relevant scientific agenda for the committee's work if the study of ESTs is to usefully influence training programs. Recommendations are made to encourage programs and the CSP to study mechanisms of change, important contextual variables for therapy delivery, the distinction between statistical significance and clinical meaningfulness, dissemination, cost-effectiveness, and iatrogenic effects. It is argued that any program that created a curriculum educating students to thoughtfully address these issues when evaluating therapies would be producing sound clinical scientists regardless of the quality of the EST list itself.

This meta-analysis involved the direct comparison of treatment modalities used in career interventions. In general, interventions that did not involve a counselor were found to be less effective than other modalities. Results also indicated that workshops or structured groups tended to produce better outcomes than non-structured career counseling groups. Furthermore, participants who used a career computer system supplemented by counseling had better outcomes than those who just used a computer system. Many of the comparisons involved comparing counselor-free interventions to other counselor-free interventions; however, this analysis did not find any significant moderators to effect size variation. There was also significant variation in workshops/structured groups and additional research is needed to analyze workshop content and client attributes.

This article reports a meta-analysis on social skills training as a measure for preventing antisocial behavior in children and youth. From 851 documents, 84 reports containing 135 comparisons between treated and untreated youngsters ( N = 16,723) fulfilled stepwise eligibility criteria (e.g., randomized control-group design, focus on prevention). Despite a wide range of positive and negative effect sizes, the majority confirmed the benefits of treatment. The best estimated mean effects were d = .38 (postintervention) and .28 (follow-up). Effects were smaller on antisocial behavior than on related social and cognitive measures. Studies with large samples produced lower effect sizes than those with smaller samples. Programs targeting at-risk groups had better effects than universal programs. Modes of treatment did not differ significantly; however, cognitive-behavioral programs had the strongest impact on antisocial behavior. More well-controlled studies with large samples, hard outcome criteria, and long follow-up periods are needed, particularly outside the United States.

Zusammenfassung. Theoretischer Hintergrund: Die Wirksamkeit von Psychotherapie bei Kindern und Jugendlichen wurde bislang im deutschsprachigen Raum nicht zusammenfassend geprüft. Analysen der Erwachsenenpsychotherapie und/oder anglo-amerikanische Untersuchungen zu diesem Thema können aus verschiedenen Gründen nicht einfach übertragen werden. Fragestellung: Ziel der Arbeit ist eine Bestandsaufnahme der deutschsprachigen Psychotherapieforschung bei Kindern und Jugendlichen sowie eine Meta-Analyse der kontrollierten Studien. Methode: Es wurde entsprechend den Richtlinien und Verfahrensweisen eines systematischen Literaturreviews und der meta-analytischen Methodik vorgegangen (vgl. Beelmann & Bliesener, 1994 ). Ergebnisse: Forschungsmethodisch lässt sich eine weitgehend an Einzelfällen und unkontrollierten Untersuchungen orientierte Erfolgsforschung feststellen. Die Bestandsaufnahme ergab zudem eine weit überwiegend verhaltenstherapeutische Wirksamkeitsforschung. Vor allem zu psychoanalytischen/tiefenpsychologischen sowie eltern- und familienorientierten Therapiekonzepten liegen nur wenige Untersuchungen vor. Auch die Bandbreite der untersuchten Störungsformen und Altersgruppen ist als gering zu bewerten. Die Meta-Analyse von 47 Behandlungs-Kontrollgruppen-Vergleichen ergab einen mittleren Effekt von 0.54, der sich mit den Ergebnissen aktueller Analysen aus den USA deckt. Anders als dort konnten jedoch nur wenige Differenzierungen gefunden werden. So unterscheiden sich z.B. behaviorale und nicht-behaviorale Therapien nicht signifikant voneinander. Diese wie auch andere Vergleiche sind aber aufgrund von Unterschieden in den Primärstudien schwierig zu bewerten. Schlussfolgerungen: Insgesamt sprechen auch die Daten der deutschsprachigen Psychotherapieforschung für den Erfolg psychotherapeutischer Maßnahmen bei Kindern und Jugendlichen. Im Hinblick auf Fragen der differenziellen Indikation können mit Hilfe der analysierten Arbeiten allerdings nur wenige therapeutische Maßnahmen als ausreichend evaluiert beurteilt werden. Dazu gehören verhaltensmodifikatorische Techniken bei Angststörungen, kognitiv-behaviorale Therapie bei Lernstörungen sowie die klientenzentrierte Spieltherapie bei unklarer Indikation. Auf einen großen Nachholbedarf an empirischen und methodisch hochwertigen Studien wird hingewiesen.

Zusammenfassung. Theoretischer Hintergrund: In der Psychotherapieforschung haben sich Prä-Post-Effektstärken zur Erfassung des Therapieerfolgs weitgehend als Standard durchgesetzt. Als Alternative lassen sich retrospektive Erfolgsmaße diskutieren, bei denen Therapieerfolg rückblickend am Ende der Behandlung eingeschätzt wird. Fragestellung: Lassen sich retrospektive Erfolgsmaße empirisch von den Effektstärkemaßen unterscheiden? Methode: An drei Stichproben ambulanter Patienten (Angstpatienten [N = 583], Patienten mit Affektiven Störungen [N = 95] und diagnostisch heterogene Restgruppe [N = 97]) wurden Effektstärkemaße für die störungsspezifische und störungsübergreifende Symptomatik sowie Störungsfolgen berechnet. Außerdem wurden fünf retrospektive Erfolgsmaße erhoben (Fragebogen zur Veränderung des Erlebens und Verhaltens [VEV], Globalurteile und Zielerreichungsskalierungen von Patienten und Therapeuten). Die acht Erfolgsmaße gingen in eine explorative Faktorenanalyse ein. Ergebnisse: In allen drei Stichproben ergab sich jeweils eine zweifaktorielle Struktur. Auf dem Faktor “Veränderungsmessung“ luden die Effektstärkemaße, auf dem Faktor “Retrospektive Erfolgsbeurteilung“ die Globalurteile und Zielerreichungsskalierungen. Schlussfolgerungen: Eine Beschränkung auf lediglich eine Erfolgsdimension erscheint weder im Forschungs- noch im Praxiskontext gerechtfertigt.

Despite the growing literature on empirically supported therapies, these interventions are rarely used in clinical settings. Although researchers lament the poor transfer of techniques from controlled trials to clinics, little has been written to guide the adaptation of manualised treatments for real-life clinical practice. The goal of this paper is to provide suggestions for the clinical use of research-tested treatments, with specific examples from the treatment of child depressive disorders. Strategies for applying manuals flexibly, adapting treatments to address comorbidity, attending to individual differences, and overcoming training obstacles are highlighted.

The authors are involved in an ongoing trial comparing the efficacy of cognitive behavioural therapy for patients with bulimia nervosa delivered via telemedicine versus delivered via an on-site therapist. The overall purpose of the study is to see if psychotherapy can be delivered effectively via telemedicine, and if such administration is acceptable to patients. This trial evolved out of growing concerns that manual-based psychotherapies for various psychiatric conditions are not widely available, particularly to people in rural areas. Some of the practical aspects of delivering psychotherapy via telemedicine are discussed. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Eating Disorders Association.

The use of the telephone has become an increasingly popular mode for providing counseling. However, little is known about its effectiveness. This study is an initial effectiveness study on telephone counseling. Participants (N = 186) who had received counseling from a telephone counseling service rated the effectiveness of telephone counseling and the quality of their counseling relationship. Generally, respondents indicated that telephone counseling was helpful for both global and specific improvement and that they were satisfied with the counseling they received. Respondents also rated the counseling relationship and level of interpersonal influence similarly to face-to-face counseling studies measuring the same attributes. The telephone counseling results are given in the context of face-to-face counseling data from other studies.

Clinical significance refers to changes that are clinically meaningful for individuals as they progress through a course of treatment. Since the first method of assessing clinical significance was proposed, a number of alternatives have been suggested, each purporting to increase sensitivity for detecting meaningful change. However, few comparisons have been conducted on these methods, and there is little evidence for any method's predictive validity. This study compares classification rates of five clinical significance methods with participants treated for major depressive disorder (N = 128). It also compares the methods' accuracy in predicting relapse of depression 2 years posttreatment. Although all methods successfully predicted relapse from chance discrimination, no significant differences emerged between methods. Implications for future research are discussed.

This study reports the 12-month follow-up from patients with the fear of flying who were treated in a controlled study and randomly assigned (n = 49) to virtual reality exposure (VRE) therapy, standard exposure (SE) therapy, or to a wait-list control (WL). VRE and SE were equally superior to WL. At 12 months posttreatment, data were gathered on 24 of the 30 (80%) patients who were assigned to VRE or SE. Patients maintained their treatment gains, and 92% of VRE participants and 91% of SE participants had flown on a real airplane since the graduation flight. This is the 1st year-long follow-up of patients having been treated with VRE and indicates that short-term treatment can have lasting effects.

Firefighters are exposed to many traumatic events. The psychological costs of this exposure increase the risk of Post-Traumatic Stress disorder (PTSD), depression and anxiety. This study examined the effectiveness of Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) as a short-term treatment for reducing PTSD symptoms among Saudi firefighters. A randomized waiting-list control study was conducted with 34 traumatized firefighters were randomly allocated to NET or Waiting-list Control (WLC). The NET group received four therapy sessions of 60-90 min over a three-week period; those in the WLC condition received the same sessions after a three-week waiting period. Participants in both groups were assessed at baseline, immediately post-intervention and at 3 and 6 month follow ups. NET led to significant reductions in PTSD symptoms, anxiety and depression compared with WLC. After the WLC group received treatment, it showed the same improvements as the NET group. This occurred immediately post-treatment in both groups, but was not sustained at 3 and 6 month follow ups. Coping strategies and social support led to significant changes only in follow up times. NET was effective in reducing PTSD symptoms in traumatised Saudi firefighters. This finding could be helpful in the management of PTSD among people who work as first responders such as firefighters, police officers and emergency medical personal, as well as security officers.

This chapter provides a timely opportunity to summarize the research history and usage of the Children's Depression Inventory (GDI) since its inception. It describes the GDI, as well as its various versions, associated manuals, and scoring forms. The GDI has been found to be useful with various populations and in different settings. The chapter highlights the current research and theory related to the GDI. It examines use of the GDI, discusses proper from improper use of the instrument, and addresses questions frequently asked by practitioners. The chapter explores the several strategies for assessing the significance of changes in CDI scores during treatment. The psychometric strengths of the CDI are well established and documented by an abundance of research publications. The chapter also describes the ongoing development of the GDI, including anticipated accessories, future research directions, and extended applications. The GDI is appropriate for children and adolescents aged 7 to 17 years.

Transdiagnostic approaches to cognitive behaviour therapy (TCBT) of anxiety disorders have drawn increasing interest and empirical testing over the past decade. In this paper, we review evidence of the overall efficacy of TCBT for anxiety disorders, as well as TCBT efficacy compared with wait-list, treatment-as-usual, and diagnosis-specific cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) controls. A total of 11 studies reporting 12 trials (n = 1933) were included in the systematic review. Results from the meta-analysis of 11 trials suggest that TCBT was generally associated with positive outcome; TCBT patients did better than wait-list and treatment-as-usual patients, and treatment gains were maintained through follow-up. The pooled estimate showed a moderate treatment effect, however with large heterogeneity suggesting differences in treatment effects between the studies. Also, all the included trials, apart from one, were judged to be associated with a high risk of bias. Only one study compared TCBT with diagnosis-specific CBT suggesting treatment effect of TCBT to be as strong as diagnosis-specific CBT. This study not only cautiously supports evidence for the efficacy of TCBT, but also suggests the need for more high-quality, large-scaled studies in this area. Transdiagnostic treatments offer great clinical promise as an affordable and pragmatic treatment for anxiety disorders and as a specialized treatment for co-morbid and other-specified anxiety disorders.

The purpose of the current study is to examine the efficacy of Counselor-Assisted Problem Solving (CAPS) in improving caregiver adaptation following traumatic brain injury (TBI).In a randomized clinical trial comparing CAPS (n = 65), an online problem-solving intervention with accompanying Web-based counseling sessions, with an information-based Internet Resource Comparison (IRC; n = 67) program, participants included families of 12- to 17-year-olds who had sustained a TBI in the past 6 months. Linear regression analyses were used to identify main effects and to examine whether caregiver education, race, or prior computer use moderated treatment efficacy.Computer experience moderated postintervention improvements in caregiving self-efficacy following CAPS, Specifically, parents in CAPS with low levels of prior use reporting the greatest improvements. CAPS participants who completed 5 or more sessions reported greater reductions in depression than did the IRC; however, the groups did not differ on global distress.Findings support the potential utility of counselor-supported Web-based interventions particularly for individuals with limited computer expertise following adolescent TBI.

A psicoterapia pela internet é uma prática que, no Brasil, só é permitida aos psicólogos na forma de pesquisa. O objetivo do presente artigo foi realizar uma revisão dos estudos em psicoterapia pela internet, discorrendo sobre os recursos e os limites desse atendimento psicológico e suas implicações para a relação terapêutica e para a efetividade do tratamento. São apresentadas questões legais e éticas concernentes à prática. Os resultados apontaram similaridades entre a relação terapêutica online e a presencial, mostrando-se a psicoterapia pela internet efetiva nas mais distintas modalidades, embora a maioria dos estudos seja sobre intervenções cognitivo-comportamentais. As questões legais e éticas podem ser parcialmente solucionadas com diretrizes claras das organizações profissionais e com o treino de terapeutas na modalidade online. Concluímos que a psicoterapia pela internet, embora requeira maiores estudos, anuncia-se como uma prática viável e promissora. The practice of online therapy is only allowed to psychologists in Brazil for research. The aim of this paper was to review studies on online therapy, discussing the features and limits of this type of psychological treatment and its implications for the therapeutic relationship and treatment effectiveness. Legal and ethical issues concerning the practice are presented. The results pointed to similarities between the therapeutic relationship online and face-to-face therapy, showing that online therapy is effective in its different modalities, although most studies deal with cognitive-behavioral interventions. Legal and ethical issues can be partially solved with clear guidelines of professional organizations and training of therapists in online mode. We conclude that online therapy requires more study, but already presents itself as a viable and promising practice. La psicoterapia a través de Internet en Brasil sólo está permitida a los psicólogos en la forma de investigación. El objetivo de este trabajo fue revisar los estudios de la psicoterapia a través de Internet, hablando de las características y los límites de esto tratamiento psicológico y sus implicaciones para la relación terapéutica y la efectividad del tratamiento. Se muestran problemas legales y éticos relacionados con la práctica. Los resultados apuntaron a las similitudes entre la relación terapéutica online y cara a cara, muestrando que la psicoterapia a través de Internet es efectiva en sus más distintas modalidades, aunque la mayoría de los estudios se trata de intervenciones cognitivo-conductuales. Las cuestiones jurídicas y éticas pueden ser parcialmente resueltas con claras diretrices de las organizaciones profesionales y formación de los terapeutas en la modalidade online. Concluimos que la psicoterapia a través de Internet, aunque requiere más estudio, se anuncia como una práctica viable y prometedora.

The aim of the present study was to compare the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioural (CBT) and psychodynamic (PDT) therapies in the treatment of anxiety among university students. To this aim, the Symptom Questionnaire (SQ) was completed by 30 students assigned to CBT and by 24 students assigned to PDT, both at the beginning and at the end of treatment. The main problem presented by all patients was anxiety. Except for one sub-scale, we observed significant differences in the scores of all sub-scales and scales of SQ, with lower scores at the end of the therapy, indicating lower distress, regardless of the type of treatment. The present findings suggest that both therapies are effective in the treatment of anxiety among university students.

The meaningfulness of psychotherapy outcome as measured in therapy research is a persistent and important issue. Following a period of emphasis on statistically significant findings for treated versus control groups, many researchers are renewing efforts to investigate the meaningfulness of individual change. Several statistical methods are available to evaluate the meaningfulness of client's changes occurring as a result of treatment. This article reviews the history of the clinical significance concept; describes the various methods for defining improvement, recovery, and clinically significant change; examines current criticisms of the methods; and describes the current use of the methods in practice.

The Chester County (PA) Drug Court Program was implemented in October of 1997. By the end of January of 1999, 184 drug offenders had participated in the program. This evaluation of the Chester County Drug Court Program compares the 184 drug court participants to 51 comparable offenders who were placed on probation at some point between December 1996 and September 1997. These comparison subjects were selected based upon the drug court program eligibility criteria (i.e., offenders charged with non-mandatory drug offenses; offenders not under probation or parole supervision when charged with drug offenses; and no prior record for violent offenses). Drug court and comparison samples were compared in terms of current status, new arrests, revocation/removal from program, and drug testing results. Findings reveal a lower rate of positive results for drug tests taken by the drug court participants as compared to the comparison group. Similarly, there was a lower rate of rearrest during the program among the drug court sample than among the comparison sample. On the other hand, drug court participants were more likely than the comparison group to be unsuccessfully removed from their programs. Survival analysis revealed that the differences in the survival patterns of the drug court and comparison samples approached statistical significance. Additionally, African American drug court participants appeared to do significantly poorer than Caucasian drug court participants. Those drug court graduates for whom follow-up data (n=15) were available appear to be successful in leading productive and drug-free lives.

We review research on programs designed to promote family wellness and prevent the maltreatment of children. Based on this review, we conclude that there is currently no evidence that educational programs prevent child sexual abuse. Only home visitation programs have been shown to prevent child physical abuse and neglect, and multicomponent, community-based programs have been shown to promote family wellness and prevent a number of negative outcomes for children. The most effective programs are those that address several different ecological levels of analysis, begin at birth, are long-term and intensive, are flexible, responsive, and controlled by the local community, and are based on respectful and trusting relationships between community members and staff, who are well trained and competent.Resume Nous examinons la recherche entreprise dans le cadre de programmes concus pour ameliorer le bien-etre de la famille et prevenir le mauvais traitement des enfants. A partir de cet examen, nous concluons qu'il n'existe pas de preuve montrant que les programmes d'education previennent la violence sexuelle a l'endroit des enfants; seuls les programmes de visites a domicile ont montre qu'il est possible de prevenir la violence physique et la negligence a l'endroit des enfants. Aussi, il est montre que les programmes a volets multiples, axes sur la collectivite, favorisent le bien-etre de la famille et previennent un certain nombre d'abus. Les programmes les plus efficaces sont ceux qui abordent plusieurs niveaux ecologiques differents d'analyse, debutent a la naissance, sont a long terme et intensifs, sont souples, sensibles aux besoins et geres par la collectivite locale, et fondes sur des rapports de respect et de confiance entre les membres de la collectivite et un personnel qui a ete bien forme et qui est competent.

Factors that influence client outcome can be divided into four areas: extratherapeutic factors, expectancy effects, specific therapy techniques, and common factors. Common factors such as empathy, warmth, and the therapeutic relationship have been shown to correlate more highly with client outcome t

A meta-analysis was conducted to determine whether the relative magnitude of common factor and specific treatment effects was related to the classes of outcome domain (subjective well-being, symptoms, and life functioning) described in Howard, Lueger, Maling, and Martinovitch's 1993 phase model of psychotherapy. Effect sizes were calculated for 80 outcome studies that each contained no-treatment, common factor, and treatment groups. Contrary to hypotheses, the magnitude of both (a) common factor versus no-treatment comparisons (r = .11) and (b) common factor versus specific treatment comparisons (r = .19) did not differ across domains. The magnitude of both components of psychotherapy was consistent across a variety of variables. A notable exception was the lack of significant common factor effects in the treatment of more severe disorders.

The Correctional Drug Abuse Treatment Effectiveness project obtained and coded evaluation research studies (unpublished as well as published) of treatment/intervention programs reported from 1968 to 1996. Meta-analysis was used to examine evidence for their effectiveness in reducing recidivism for incarcerated offenders who are drug abusers. Results supported the effectiveness of therapeutic community programs but not of boot camps and drug-focused group counseling. Evaluations of other interventions were based on too few studies to draw strong conclusions, but promising treatments that warrant further attention include use of methadone maintenance treatment, substance abuse education, 12-step programs, and cognitive behavioral therapy for offender populations.

Treatment foster care (TFC) allows troubled youth to remain in the community and live in a family setting. Prior studies suggest that TFC may be an effective alternative to more restrictive interventions. However, most TFC programs have been designed to treat elementary school age youth and adolescents. At a time when the foster care population is burgeoning, and the proportion of very young children in the system is increasing, there is a need for TFC programs specifically designed to meet the needs of maltreated preschoolers. In this article we describe an early intervention foster care program that targets 3 areas: behavior problems, emotional regulation, and developmental delays. The theoretical model for the program is also described, along with recommendations for the implementation of similar programs.

The present article reports information resulting from a review of 19 articles reporting studies conducted in the 1990s with a total of 62 participants who were identified as having, or being at risk for, emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Studies were included in this review only if (a) a functional assessment was conducted, (b) the participants were identified as having, or being at risk for, EBD, and (c) the study was published after 1989. Findings indicate that functional assessment research is being conducted with young children in special and general education settings with the use of single-case design methodologies. A review is made of the nine articles that reported findings from functional assessment-based intervention studies. The review suggests that antecedent-based interventions, primarily curricular modifications, are most often examined. Results indicate that present research methodology includes important components essential to making valid conclusions from outcomes, and in generalizing findings. Directions for future research are discussed.

This paper presents the results of a 3-year follow-up study on the effectiveness of additional autogenic training (AT; a psychophysiological self-control method using self-inductions of physical and mental relaxation) in the psychotherapy of outpatients with depressive disorders. Subjects were 55 patients (aged 22-69 years) with depressive disorders diagnosed according to ICD-10. Subjects were randomized to one of three groups: Group A participated in 40 single psychotherapy sessions over a period of 20 weeks; Group B learned AT in the first 10 weeks and had 20 single psychotherapy sessions as well as AT practice in the second 10 weeks; Group C was the waiting-list control group in the first 10 weeks and had 20 single psychotherapy sessions as well as AT learning in the second 10 weeks. Tests for depressive symptoms (BDI) and psychosomatic complaints (AT-SYM) were given before the start of treatment, after 10 weeks, after 20 weeks, as well as 8 months and 3 years after the end of treatment. In addition, at both follow-ups information were gathered on disease course, relapses, psychotherapy and medical treatments, as well as AT practice. Long-term follow-up shows that controlled and supervised use of AT before or in combination with psychotherapy has more positive effects than psychotherapy alone. Compared to psychotherapy without AT (Group A), combined psychotherapy and AT (Groups B and C) resulted in significantly lower rates of relapse and treatment reentry as well as in significantly more stable positive treatment effects in the reduction of depression and psychosomatic symptoms at the second follow-up.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of performance feedback on the implementation of a reinforcer-based classroom intervention. The primary treatment agents were four classroom...

Recent reviews of the group psychotherapy literature indicate that group is a beneficial and cost-effective treatment format. However, collective findings on the differential efficacy of group when compared with individual therapy remain problematic, incomplete, or controversial. To remedy this problem, the authors conducted a meta-analysis of 23 outcome studies that directly compared the effectiveness of the individual and group therapy formats when they were used within the same study. Results were consistent with previous reports that indicated no difference in outcome between the group and individual formats. This finding generally held true when client, therapist, methodology, treatment, and group variables were examined for possible relationship with effect sizes comparing group and individual therapy. Results bolster past findings that group therapy can be used as an efficacious cost-effective alternative to individual therapy under many different conditions.

Respondents read a narrative depicting a drunk-driving offender seeking help for alcohol problems and were randomly assigned to receive 1 of 3 types of client motivation (autonomous motivation, compulsory treatment, or impression management) and 1 of 2 types of therapist motivation (autonomous vs. controlled motivation). Maximal treatment efficacy was expected when both client and therapist were autonomously motivated. Minimal treatment efficacy was expected when the client entered treatment only to manage impressions and when the therapist exhibited controlled motivation. Compulsory treatment undermined beliefs about client interest in treatment. Finally, autonomously motivated therapists were expected to be able to reverse expected negative outcomes for compulsory treatment and impression management clients. It was found that expectations about the efficacy of alcohol aeam~nt were affected by the perceived motivation of clients and therapists.