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Differential gene expression can play an important role in phenotypic evolution and divergent adaptation. Although differential gene expression can be caused by both local- and distant-regulatory changes, we know little about their relative contribution to transcriptome evolution in natural populations. Here, we conducted expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) analysis to investigate the genetic architecture underlying transcriptome divergence between marine and stream ecotypes of threespine sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). We identified both local and distant eQTLs, some of which constitute hotspots, regions with a disproportionate number of significant eQTLs relative to the genomic background. The majority of local eQTLs including those in the hotspots caused expression changes consistent with the direction of transcriptomic divergence between ecotypes. Genome scan analysis showed that many local eQTLs overlapped with genomic regions of high differentiation. In contrast, nearly half of the distant eQTLs including those in the hotspots caused opposite expression changes, and few overlapped with regions of high differentiation, indicating that distant eQTLs may act as a constraint of transcriptome evolution. Finally, a comparison between two salinity conditions revealed that nearly half of eQTL hotspots were environment specific, suggesting that analysis of genetic architecture in multiple conditions is essential for predicting response to selection.

International audience; Cet article s’intéresse à la définition de la position nationale française dans l’Espace européen d’enseignement supérieur (EEES), cas limite de « nouvelle gouvernance européenne » à la marge de l’UE. Observe-t-on un ajustement du circuit classique de définition de la position nationale ou la mise en place de mécanismes alternatifs ? Suivant une démarche qualitative inductive, cette étude identifie la constellation d’acteurs impliqués, recompose sa méthode de travail, et analyse les logiques de polarisation dans la définition de la position française entre le « sup’ communautaire » et le processus de Bologne.

Smallpox, caused by the variola virus (VARV), was a highly virulent disease with high mortality rates causing a major threat for global human health until its successful eradication in 1980. Despite previously published historic and modern VARV genomes, its past dissemination and diversity remain debated. To understand the evolutionary history of VARV with respect to historic and modern VARV genetic variation in Europe, we sequenced a VARV genome from a well-described eighteenth-century case from England (specimen P328). In our phylogenetic analysis, the new genome falls between the modern strains and another historic strain from Lithuania, supporting previous claims of larger diversity in early modern Europe compared to the twentieth century. Our analyses also resolve a previous controversy regarding the common ancestor between modern and historic strains by confirming a later date around the seventeenth century. Overall, our results point to the benefit of historic genomes for better resolution of past VARV diversity and highlight the value of such historic genomes from around the world to further understand the evolutionary history of smallpox as well as related diseases.This article is part of the theme issue ‘Insights into health and disease from ancient biomolecules’.

International audience

Seminal fluid proteins (SFPs) mediate an array of postmating reproductive processes that influence fertilization and fertility. As such, it is widely held that SFPs may contribute to postmating, prezygotic reproductive barriers between closely related taxa. We investigated seminal fluid (SF) diversification in a recently diverged passerine species pair (Passer domesticus and Passer hispaniolensis) using a combination of proteomic and comparative evolutionary genomic approaches. First, we characterized and compared the SF proteome of the two species, revealing consistencies with known aspects of SFP biology and function in other taxa, including the presence and diversification of proteins involved in immunity and sperm maturation. Second, using whole-genome resequencing data, we assessed patterns of genomic differentiation between house and Spanish sparrows. These analyses detected divergent selection on immunity-related SF genes and positive selective sweeps in regions containing a number of SF genes that also exhibited protein abundance diversification between species. Finally, we analyzed the molecular evolution of SFPs across 11 passerine species and found a significantly higher rate of positive selection in SFPs compared with the rest of the genome, as well as significant enrichments for functional pathways related to immunity in the set of positively selected SF genes. Our results suggest that selection on immunity pathways is an important determinant of passerine SF composition and evolution. Assessing the role of immunity genes in speciation in other recently diverged taxa should be prioritized given the potential role for immunity-related proteins in reproductive incompatibilities in Passer sparrows.

The rise of global initiatives in many policy sectors is an emerging phenomenon that deserves the attention of scholars interested in international relations, regional integration, and policy sciences, as well as practitioners seeking comparative examples beyond their national and regional borders. This chapter demonstrates the value-added of the design orientation in studying this phenomenon and the implications for the contemporary delivery of public services and goods. It begins by describing three waves of policy design studies and their insights for unpacking the relationship between instrument design and intended outcomes. The overview reveals a notable feature of the extant policy design approach: its empirical preoccupation with domestic-level developments, which inform but confine theory development. This chapter introduces the analytical steps required to operationalize policy design insights in examining global public policy and transnational administration. In so doing, it calls for a new metaphor for policy design that would incorporate the beyond-the-state dimension. Accepted version

International audience

International audience; Objective: In first grazing season calves, the anthelmintic treatments used to control the negative impact of gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) on growth must be rationalized to preserve their long-term efficacy. In this way, the suitability of a single mid-season targeted selective treatment (TST) for gastrointestinal nematodes control, based on flexible average daily weight gain (ADWG) thresholds, was investigated in 23 groups of first grazing season calves. Materials and methods: Each group was divided in two sub-groups and animals randomly allocated to one of these two sub-groups intended for two different mid-season anthelmintic treatment strategies: (1) a treatment of all calves (whole-group treatment-WT) or (2) a targeted selective weight gain-based treatment (TST). TST was based of those animals showing an individual pre-treatment ADWG inferior to the mean pre-treatment ADWG of the corresponding WT sub-group. Anthelmintic treatment (levamisole 7.5 mg/kg body-weight) was performed 3 to 4 months after turnout. At housing, two parasitological parameters (the anti-Ostertagia ostertagi antibody level and the pepsinogen level) and a clinical parameter (the breech soiling score) were assessed at individual level in each group. Results: Among TST sub-groups, the ADWG thresholds for treatment varied from 338 to 941 g/day and the percentage of treated animals from 28% to 75%. Pre- and post-treatment ADWG as well as parasitological and clinical parameters measured at housing were similar between TST and WT sub-groups. In the 6 highest GIN exposed groups (mean pepsinogen level ≥2.5 U Tyr), the average effect of treatment on post-treatment ADWG was the highest and estimated up to 14 kg after a grazing duration of 4 months. In contrast, in 6 other groups showing mean anti-Ostertagia ostertagi antibody level

Le véhicule blindé multi-rôles Griffon, matériel majeur du programme d’armement Scorpion, équipera l’armée de Terre à partir de 2023. Son arrivée marque la fin d’une époque pour le Service de santé des armées. En effet, depuis près de quarante ans, les équipes médicales déployées sur les théâtres d’opération extérieure utilisent le fameux véhicule de l’avant blindé en version sanitaire (VAB SAN). Ce véhicule aura connu différentes évolutions pour s’adapter au changement de doctrine médico-militaire et à la typologie des engagements militaires français récents. L’élaboration de son successeur met en exergue la difficulté de réaliser grâce à un même vecteur blindé soit une mission d’évacuation à grande échelle en cas d’afflux massif de blessés soit une médicalisation fine. Elle constitue une opportunité unique d’analyser l’évolution des pratiques médicales militaires et des missions tactiques.

La régulation médicale est un acte médical pratiqué par un médecin régulateur, par téléphone ou par tout autre moyen de télécommunication. Très encadrée en France dans l’exercice de la médecine pré-hospitalière, elle a pour objectif majeur de répondre aux besoins du patient en trouvant la solution la plus adaptée (juste soin). Le soutien médical des engagements récents des armées françaises a intégré cette pratique. Indissociable du processus de planification préalable à toute manoeuvre militaire, la régulation est réalisée par les cellules de coordination pour l’évacuation des patients, ou en anglais Patient evacuation coordination cells (PECC). Elle permet d’optimiser l’organisation des évacuations médicales (MEDEVAC) tactiques adaptées à l’état clinique des blessés et malades en prenant en compte les contraintes opérationnelles et matérielles. Depuis septembre 2018, un médecin est en charge de la planification des opérations médicales (MEDOPS) au sein du J35 du poste de commande interarmées (PCIAT) de l’opération Barkhane. Cette évolution permet de distinguer la fonction de planification de celle de conduite des opérations et de coordination des MEDEVAC tactiques réalisées par le PECC. D’autres pistes de réflexion, notamment l’essor de la télémédecine et l’évolution des métiers de la santé, offrent des perspectives intéressantes pour adapter le soutien médical aux enjeux actuels.

In dairy cows, the milk production (MP) response to anthelmintic treatment (AT) is variable, and the decision to treat still depends on how much risk averse farmers or vets are. The objective of this study was to develop a stepwise decision making strategy based on nested criteria associated with an increasing probability of MP response. A randomized controlled trial was conducted at housing in 123 grazing dairy herds (injectable eprinomectin). Monthly individual test-day milk yields were obtained. Linear mixed models were used to assess the effect of AT on MP. In a first step, all herds were included in the analysis. The criterion associated with the highest MP response was identified. In a second step, only herds meeting the first criterion were included in order to identify the criterion associated with the highest MP response in this subset. This was repeated a third time on herds meeting the first 2 criteria. When all the herds were taken into account, the effect of AT was significant but low (+0.3 kg/cow/day). The first discriminating criterion (step 1) was identified as the % of grazed grass in the diet (no MP gain in low-pasturing herds versus +1 kg/cow/day in moderate/high-pasturing herds). Among moderate/high-pasturing herds, the second discriminating criterion (step 2) was the TEC (+0.6 kg/cow/day in high-TEC herds versus +1.4 kg/cow/day in low-TEC herds). Finally, among moderate/high-pasturing AND low-TEC herds, the third discriminating criteria (step 3) was the bulk tank milk Ostertagia ODR (+0.2 versus +1.8 kg/cow/day when ODR < 0.9 and ≥ 0.9, respectively). The 3 criteria identified, when applied sequentially, are associated with increasing expected MP gains and are useful for farmers and vets with different attitudes regarding risk.

International audience; The suitability of a single mid-season targeted selective treatment (TST) for gastrointestinal nematode control, based on flexible average daily weight gain (ADWG) thresholds, was investigated in 23 groups of first grazing season calves 3-4 months after turnout (levamisole 7.5 mg/kg). In each group, animals were randomly allocated into 2 sub-groups: one sub-group where all calves were treated (whole treatment, WT) and the other sub-group where a TST was applied on the animals showing an individual pre-treatment ADWG inferior to the corresponding mean pre-treatment ADWG in the WT sub-group. At housing, blood anti-Ostertagia antibody and pepsinogen levels and breech soiling score were assessed at individual level. In TST sub-groups, the ADWG thresholds for treatment ranged from 338 to 941 g/day and the percentage of treated animals from 28 to 75 %. Pre and post-treatment ADWG as well as parasitological and clinical parameters measured at housing were similar between WT and TST sub-groups. In the 6 highest exposed groups (pepsinogen level ≥2.5 U TYR), the average effect of treatment on post-treatment ADWG was the highest and estimated up to 14 kg for 4 months of grazing. In contrast, in 6 other groups showing the lowest exposure, no effect of treatment was seen suggesting an absence of production losses when the level of infection is low. This study demonstrated that a mid-season TST strategy for first grazing season calves based on the use of flexible thresholds of AWG allowed similar growth compared to WT strategy while keeping a nematode population in refugia.

Speciation is a continuous process and analysis of species pairs at different stages of divergence provides insight into how it unfolds. Previous genomic studies on young species pairs have revealed peaks of divergence and heterogeneous genomic differentiation. Yet less known is how localised peaks of differentiation progress to genome-wide divergence during the later stages of speciation in the presence of persistent gene flow. Spanning the speciation continuum, stickleback species pairs are ideal for investigating how genomic divergence builds up during speciation. However, attention has largely focused on young postglacial species pairs, with little knowledge of the genomic signatures of divergence and introgression in older stickleback systems. The Japanese stickleback species pair, composed of the Pacific Ocean three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) and the Japan Sea stickleback (G. nipponicus), which co-occur in the Japanese islands, is at a late stage of speciation. Divergence likely started well before the end of the last glacial period and crosses between Japan Sea females and Pacific Ocean males result in hybrid male sterility. Here we use coalescent analyses and Approximate Bayesian Computation to show that the two species split approximately 0.68–1 million years ago but that they have continued to exchange genes at a low rate throughout divergence. Population genomic data revealed that, despite gene flow, a high level of genomic differentiation is maintained across the majority of the genome. However, we identified multiple, small regions of introgression, occurring mainly in areas of low recombination rate. Our results demonstrate that a high level of genome-wide divergence can establish in the face of persistent introgression and that gene flow can be localized to small genomic regions at the later stages of speciation with gene flow., Author summary When species evolve, reproductive isolation leads to a build-up of differentiation in the genome where genes involved in the process occur. Spanning the speciation continuum, stickleback species pairs are ideal for investigating how genomic divergence accumulates during speciation. However, much of our understanding of stickleback speciation comes from early stage divergence, with relatively few examples from more divergent species pairs that still exchange genes. To address this, we focused on Pacific Ocean and Japan Sea sticklebacks, which co-occur in the Japanese islands. We established that they are the oldest and most divergent known stickleback species pair, that they evolved in the face of gene flow and that this gene flow is still on going. We found introgression is confined to small, localised genomic regions where recombination rate is high. Our results show high divergence can be maintained between species, despite extensive gene flow.

Chez les bovins, la résistance des strongles gastro-intestinaux (SGI) aux anthelminthiques (AH) ne doit pas être négligée. Pour maîtriser ce risque, il est essentiel de conserver des populations refuges de parasites via le traitement AH ciblé-sélectif, c'est-à-dire des sous-populations de parasites non soumises à la pression de sélection en administrant ces traitements à des dates clés et seulement sur certains animaux. Cet article vise donc (i) présenter le concept de refuge et de stratégie de traitement AH ciblé-sélectif, et (ii) rapporter deux études françaises récentes illustrant l'élaboration / l'évaluation de telles stratégies de traitement AH chez les génisses et les vaches laitières. Chez des génisses laitières de première saison de pâturage, une stratégie de traitement sélectif basée sur le GMQ en milieu de saison de pâturage (lévamisole injectable) a été testée : elle a permis d'obtenir des résultats similaires, en termes de croissance et de parasitisme, à une stratégie de traitement collectif appliquée à la même date. Chez les vaches laitières, un essai clinique contrôlé randomisé avec traitement à l'éprinomectine injectable a été mis en place à la rentrée en stabulation. La variabilité de la réponse en lait post-traitement a été étudiée selon des critères à l'échelle troupeau et à l'échelle vache. Puis ces critères ont été hiérarchisés pour élaborer une démarche de tri pas à pas des troupeaux et des vaches à sélectionner pour le traitement AH, de manière à ce que la probabilité de gain de production laitière augmente lorsqu'on affine le tri

Le contexte actuel (demande d'une agriculture moins consommatrice d'intrants, maîtrise des risques d'antibiorésistance, maîtrise des coûts de production) amène depuis plusieurs années à une remise en question de pratiques parfois anciennes et pour lesquelles il est possible aujourd'hui de faire différemment. L'objectif est ainsi d'abandonner des pratiques de traitement collectif pour aller vers un traitement ciblé et sélectif afin de ne traiter que les animaux en ayant besoin et sur les durées les plus courtes (aussi peu que possible, autant que nécessaire). Le diagnostic, précis et précoce est alors la clé de voûte. Pour ce faire, le développement et la démocratisation de méthodes de diagnostic rapides au chevet du bovin ou d'indicateurs robustes de traitements sélectifs sont nécessaires et pour certains déjà disponibles aujourd'hui. Pour preuve l'atteinte des objectifs visés par le plan Ecoantibio 2012-2017. Il reste néanmoins encore des marges de progrès notamment au-delà des antibiotiques en s'appliquant la même exigence avec d'autres types d'intrants médicamenteux comme par exemple les antiparasitaires. Mais disposer du savoir-faire n'est pas suffisant, car le changement de pratiques anciennes (parfois promues par ceux-là même qui disent désormais de faire différemment) n'est pas chose aisée, l'accompagnement du changement de pratiques faisant appel à des méthodes plus basées sur les sciences sociales que les sciences biotechniques qui nous sont plus familières. En ce sens, l'échange autour et sur les pratiques entre éleveurs dont certains ayant changé leurs pratiques et étant convaincus (early adopters) est une piste intéressante

International audience; INTRODUCTION: Malnutrition is common after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT), and is a well-known prognostic factor for survival. The nutritional status of patients in a long term after allo-HSCT is less well documented. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of malnutrition in adult patients who underwent allo-HSCT more than one year ago. Secondary objectives were to assess body composition, muscle strength, and factors associated with malnutrition. PATIENTS & METHODS: All allo-HSCT patients admitted into the University Hospital of Clermont-Ferrand between 1st January 1985 and 31st December 2012 were screened. Clinical and biological nutritional assessments included anthropometric measurements, serum nutritional proteins, body composition assessed by bioelectrical impedance, and upper-limb muscle strength (MS) measured by dynamometry. Hematological and nutritional data during and after hospital stay for allo-HSCT were retrospectively collected. RESULTS: Eighty four allo-HSCT patients (52% men; mean age 54.4 +/- 12.5 years) were enrolled. Average follow-up after allo-HSCT was 56.4 +/- 47.5 months. Prevalence of malnutrition at the end of follow-up was 20%. Compared to well-nourished patients (WN group), undernourished patients (UN group) at the end of follow-up were significantly more likely to be undernourished (50% vs. 21%, p = 0.04) at hospital admission, and to have a Nutritional Risk Index of

Ibrutinib is a new-targeted therapy that irreversibly and specifically inhibits the Bruton's Tyrosine Kinase (BTK), a key component of the signaling pathways of B cells. The results are very encouraging as monotherapy in the treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia, mantle cell lymphoma, and Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia. Following the results of recent studies, ibrutinib is now available in France for these three diseases.

The oncogenic role of TCL1 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia is well established in transgenic mice. TCL1 expression in other B-cell malignancies has been also described: post-germinal center-derived malignancies, such as multiple myeloma, classically do not express TCL1. Waldenström macroglobulinemia is a post-germinal center malignancy that is known to be similar to chronic lymphocytic leukemia in terms of its gene expression profile. TCL1 expression has not been so far assessed in Waldenström macroglobulinemia. Transcriptomic explorations show that TCL1A expression is linked to signaling pathways and biological functions that are known to be involved in Waldenström macroglobulinemia as well as to gene signatures of interest in B-cell malignancies. We investigated TCL1 expression at the protein level in the bone marrow of a series of 59 patients with Waldenström macroglobulinemia: 76% of patients expressed TCL1, which appeared to be associated with a pejorative prognostic impact. TCL1 could have an oncogenic role in Waldenström macroglobulinemia, and deserves further exploration.

Background Marine threespine sticklebacks colonized and adapted to brackish and freshwater environments since the last Pleistocene glacial. Throughout the Holarctic, three lateral plate morphs are observed; the low, partial and completely plated morph. We test if the three plate morphs in the brackish water Lake Engervann, Norway, differ in body size, trophic morphology (gill raker number and length), niche (stable isotopes; δ15N, δ13C, and parasites (Theristina gasterostei, Trematoda spp.)), genetic structure (microsatellites) and the lateral-plate encoding Stn382 (Ectodysplasin) gene. We examine differences temporally (autumn 2006/spring 2007) and spatially (upper/lower sections of the lake – reflecting low versus high salinity). Results All morphs belonged to one gene pool. The complete morph was larger than the low plated, with the partial morph intermediate. The number of lateral plates ranged 8–71, with means of 64.2 for complete, 40.3 for partial, and 14.9 for low plated morph. Stickleback δ15N was higher in the lower lake section, while δ13C was higher in the upper section. Stickleback isotopic values were greater in autumn. The low plated morph had larger variances in δ15N and δ13C than the other morphs. Sticklebacks in the upper section had more T. gasterostei than in the lower section which had more Trematoda spp. Sticklebacks had less T. gasterostei, but more Trematoda spp. in autumn than spring. Sticklebacks with few and short rakers had more T. gasterostei, while sticklebacks with longer rakers had more Trematoda. spp. Stickleback with higher δ15N values had more T. gasterostei, while sticklebacks with higher δ15N and δ13C values had more Trematoda spp. The low plated morph had fewer Trematoda spp. than other morphs. Conclusions Trait-ecology associations may imply that the three lateral plate morphs in the brackish water lagoon of Lake Engervann are experiencing ongoing divergent selection for niche and migratory life history strategies under high gene flow. As such, the brackish water zone may generally act as a generator of genomic diversity to be selected upon in the different environments where threespine sticklebacks can live. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12862-018-1128-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The invertebrate fauna sampled on four locations (with an equal sampling effort performed on each locations) in the littoral area in the brackish water Lake Engervann on two dates (data report number of individuals sampled with the percentage contribution summed over two dates and combined for stations in the lower (Lower %) and upper sections (Upper %), and for the four sites and two dates combined in last column (Total %) (all data are taken from Halvorsen et al. [1]. Sampling sites 1 and 2 are from the lower and southern section on each side of the lake while site 3 and site 4 is situated on each side in upper northern part of the lake (see Fig. 1). (PDF 199 kb)

DAPC analyses (Dicriminant analysis of principal components) in adegenet (Jombart 2008) performed on the three lateral plate morphs of threespine stickleback from Lake Engervann. (PDF 299 kb)

The objective of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive framework to answer the question “What are the European higher education principles?”. The first section gives preliminary definitions of key notions for this framework: ‘principles’ and ‘normative space’. The second section presents European higher education principles as derived from European general principles, and articulated to the European market vision. The third section interprets them as embedded in the “University normative space” and connected to its principles and values. The fourth and conclusive section proposes to define European higher education as a normative space at the intersection between two normative spaces, “Europe” and “University”, and to differentiate between the EU (market) and EHEA (hybrid) versions of these European higher education principles.

STRUCTURE-HARVESTER results for the Lake Engervann sticklebacks. (PDF 640 kb)

Supplementary figures in a PDF

National audience; La multiplicité des études ou des signalements concernant la résistance aux anthelminthiques chez les ruminants pose le problème de la durabilité du contrôle des helminthoses chez les animaux au pâturage. Bien que la situation soit moins bien connue chez les bovins, une réponse globale s'appuyant sur une moindre sélection des populations de nématodes digestifs est nécessaire pour l'ensemble des filières. Cette réponse présente plusieurs facettes visant toutes à optimiser l'usage des traitements. Le développement de stratégies de traitement ciblé (traitements collectifs) et de traitement sélectif (traitements individuels) implique la prise en compte d'une population refuge de parasites non exposée à l'action de l'anthelminthique (stades libres dans le milieu extérieur, vers parasites chez les animaux non traités).

In this chapter, three conceptually distinct dimensions of EHEA governance are presented. One, the multi-level dimension concerning the distribution of authority across governance levels (e.g. European, regional and national). Two, the multi-actor dimension reflecting the involvement of non-state actors (e.g. stakeholder organizations) and the acknowledgement that state is also not a unitary actor. Third, the multi-issue dimension stemming from the close relationship between higher education, research, and innovation in the knowledge society, and the ensuing spillovers from and into higher education policy domain. The chapter argues that the complexity of EHEA governance can be better understood utilizing what we call the ‘three multi-s’ framework. This is exemplified by exploring how ‘the three multi-s’ and the interactions between them allow for a more nuanced analysis of EHEA governance, its changes and implications.

House sparrows (Passer domesticus) are a hugely successful anthrodependent species; occurring on nearly every continent. Yet, despite their ubiquity and familiarity to humans, surprisingly little is known about their origins. We sought to investigate the evolutionary history of the house sparrow and identify the processes involved in its transition to a human-commensal niche. We used a whole genome resequencing dataset of 120 individuals from three Eurasian species, including three populations of Bactrianus sparrows, a non-commensal, divergent house sparrow lineage occurring in the Near East. Coalescent modelling supports a split between house and Bactrianus sparrow 11 Kya and an expansion in the house sparrow at 6 Kya, consistent with the spread of agriculture following the Neolithic revolution. Commensal house sparrows therefore likely moved into Europe with the spread of agriculture following this period. Using the Bactrianus sparrow as a proxy for a pre-commensal, ancestral house population, we performed a comparative genome scan to identify genes potentially involved with adaptation to an anthropogenic niche. We identified potential signatures of recent, positive selection in the genome of the commensal house sparrow that are absent in Bactrianus populations. The strongest selected region encompasses two major candidate genes;COL11A—which regulates craniofacial and skull development andAMY2A, part of the amylase gene family which has previously been linked to adaptation to high-starch diets in humans and dogs. Our work examines human-commensalism in an evolutionary framework, identifies genomic regions likely involved in rapid adaptation to this new niche and ties the evolution of this species to the development of modern human civilization.

Summary statistics of stable isotopic values of putative prey items for the threespine stickleback sampled in the brackish water Lake Engervann and marine areas. (PDF 176 kb)