Search

Copyright of Baghdad Science Journal is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background: Sand flies are responsible for the transmission of several disease pathogens including Leishmania. Sand flies breed in habitats with high levels of humidity and organic matter. They are nocturnal in nature and peak activity ranges from dusk to dawn. The scientific evidence on breeding ecology and diurnal resting sites of sand fly fauna are important aspects of planning and implementing vector control activities. However, such fundamental information is grossly inadequate in Sri Lanka to support the control efforts in the country. Therefore, the present study addresses some of the important aspects of sand fly breeding ecology and diurnal resting sites. Methods: Potential resting sites were thoroughly observed, and sand flies were collected using a battery-operated aspirator and sticky papers when appropriate from three selected Medical Officer of Health (MOH) areas (Polpithigama, Maho and Galgamuwa) in Kurunegala district, Sri Lanka. Soil samples were collected from each potential breeding site. Half of each soil sample was incubated for 45 days. The other half was screened for immature stages. Adult sand flies collected from field and emerged adults at the insectary under confined incubation were identified using morphological characteristics. Results: Pepper bushes and termite mounds were the most notable resting sites while, betel bushes, cattle huts, piles of coconut shells, latrines, manna bushes and tree holes were also positive for sand fly adults. Only two species, Phlebotomus argentipes and Sergentomyia punjabensis, were reported. Soil samples were collected from a total of 432 sites and 7 of them were positive for immature stages. Predominant breeding habitats identified during the present study were mud flats and moist soils of rice paddies, the soil below decaying hay, drying irrigational tank bottom moist soil, and the floors of cattle huts. Conclusion: This study demonstrates that the potential adult resting sites and breeding habitats are abundant in the Polpithigama, Maho and Galgamuwa MOH areas. Therefore, vector control activities targeting both adult and immature stages of sand flies are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Molecular studies indicate that Phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae) blood feed on many vertebrate species, of which only a few are proven parasite reservoirs. Investigating sandfly vector feeding preferences is therefore important and requires taking into account the availability and accessibility of host species. In terms of the latter, it is necessary to consider the metabolic cost to the insect of reaching the host and moving on to a suitable breeding site. The present study used statistical modelling to compare the feeding patterns of Phlebotomus perniciosus (n = 150), Phlebotomus papatasi (n = 35) and Phlebotomus ariasi (n = 7) on each of an average of 30 host species in a wildlife park in Murcia, Spain. Sandfly feeding movement costs were estimated as a function of the distance and altitude gradients saved by the insect, assuming that they displayed 'site fidelity'. Most (87%) engorged females were caught <100 m from the host on which they had fed. Although the percentage of bloodmeals was highest on fallow deer (Dama dama) (30%) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) (26%), the predicted feeding probability after considering movement cost was highest for red deer and common eland (Taurotragus oryx), and positively associated with host census. These results suggest that, under similar circumstances, sandflies prefer to feed on some host species more than on others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dogs are the reservoir host of zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis (VL) caused by Leishmania infantum (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae). Both subclinically‐infected and sick animals can be infectious to competent phlebotomine vectors. The degree and duration of insecticidal efficacy of an oral dose of fluralaner (Bravecto®; Merck Animal Health) was determined in dogs exposed to bites of Phlebotomus perniciosus (Diptera: Psychodidae), a main Mediterranean vector of VL. Twelve dogs allocated to two groups of six animals each were included in a parallel‐group designed, negative‐controlled, randomized, blinded, single‐centre efficacy study. Group 2 was treated with fluralaner on day 0, and sand‐fly exposure of both groups was performed on days 1, 28 and 84. Viability of blood‐fed females was assessed up to 96 h after exposure and efficacy was measured as the survival rate of specimens fed on Group 2 versus those fed on Group 1. A mortality of 100% was recorded at 24 h in females fed on Group 2 at both days 1 and 28. Significant insecticidal efficacy was still observed on day 84, with > 50% mortality recorded by 48 h post blood meal in Group 2. Fluralaner treatment of dogs represents a promising and affordable method for reducing the pool of infected vectors in endemic settings of zoonotic VL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We detected Leishmania infantum infection in 45% of tigers and 5.3% of sand flies tested at a zoo in southern Italy in 2019. These infections in tigers and the abundance of Phlebotomus perniciosus sand flies represent a potential risk to other animals and humans living in or visiting the zoo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sand flies are vectors of several human pathogens. Phlebotomus papatasi has been confirmed as the vector of Leishmania major, the causative agent of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in Saudi Arabia. This species is the predominant in Al-Madinah which is in agreement with the expansion of CL. In the present study, the random amplified polymorphic DNA–polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR) technique was applied with six primers to evaluate the relationships among the geographic populations of P. papatasi collected from four villages in Al-Madinah: Almondasa, Almaliliah, Abyar Al-Mashy and Agool. The results showed the mean proportion of the polymorphic loci within the populations was (84.89%), while between them it was (94.51%). The average total genetic diversity across the all studied populations was slightly higher (0.35) than the genetic diversity within the populations (0.31). The average of the gene flow between the four populations was rated to have a worth of 4.363. This higher level of gene flow corresponds to less differentiation between the populations, which could result from the limited distances between the sampling areas. The phylogenetic and genetic distance analyses generated from the RAPD-PCR profiles showed close relationships between Almondasa and Almaliliah populations, while the largest genetic distance was detected between the populations of Almondasa and Agool. In conclusion, the genetic variability among and within P. papatasi populations was identified based on the efficient RAPD-PCR technique. The identification of the vector of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Al-Madinah and the differentiation of its populations and individuals is vital to the field of medical entomology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Esfahan Province is considered as one of the main focus of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ZCL) in Iran. Recently, ZCL distribution is expanding through this province leading to report of new cases in non-endemic areas. In the current study epidemiological aspects of ZCL has been investigated in Naein County in Esfahan Province. Methods: Adult sand flies were collected from beginning to the end of their seasonal activity. Rodents were caught by Sherman live traps once a month for one year. To active case detection, a hundred households in each selected village were visited in November and December 2016. Nested-PCR was employed to detect Leishmania parasite in the vector, reservoir and human. Results: Totally 1562 sand flies including Phlebotomus sergenti, Phlebotomus papatasi, Sergentomyia sintoni and Sergentomyia mervinae were collected and identified. No Leishmania infection was detected in the collected sand flies. All of the 30 collected rodents were identified as Rhombomys opimus, and of these 3.3% and 26.7% were infected by Leishmania major using microscopic and molecular technique respectively. Totally, 914 individuals were investigated and the ulcer and scar rates of ZCL calculated to be at 1.1 and 15.3 per 1000 population, respectively. Molecular results confirmed L. major infection in human and reservoir samples. Conclusion: It is concluded that ZCL is established in the area in low endemicity, and it is extrapolated the disease will not be a serious increasing health problem in the near future in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Gravid females assess the conditions of oviposition sites to secure the growth and survival of their offspring. Conspecific-occupied sites may signal suitable oviposition sites but may also impose risk due to competition or cannibalism at high population density or heterogeneous larval stage structure, respectively. Chemicals in the habitat, including chemicals emitted from other organisms, serve as cues for females to assess habitat conditions. Here, we investigated the attraction and oviposition preference of the Old World cutaneous leishmaniasis vector, Phlebotomus papatasi, to young and old conspecific stages, including eggs and evaluated the effect of a semiochemical associated with eggs and neonate larvae. Methods: Attraction and oviposition preference of Ph. papatasi to each of various life stages (eggs, first-, second-, third-, fourth-instar larvae, pupae and male and female adults) was investigated using cage and oviposition jar behavioral assays. Identification of organic chemical compounds extracted from eggs was performed using GC-MS and chemicals were tested in the same behavioral assays in a dose-response manner. Behavioral responses were statistically analyzed using logistic models. Results: Gravid Ph. papatasi females were significantly attracted to and preferred to oviposit on medium containing young life stages (eggs and first instars). This preference decreased towards older life stages. Dose effect of eggs indicated a hump-shaped response with respect to attraction but a concave-up pattern with respect to oviposition. Chemical analysis of semiochemicals from eggs and first-instar larvae revealed the presence of dodecanoic acid (DA) and isovaleric acid. Sand flies were attracted to and laid more eggs at the lowest DA dose tested followed by a negative dose-response. Conclusions: Findings corroborated our hypothesis that gravid sand flies should prefer early colonized oviposition sites as indicators of site suitability but avoid sites containing older stages as indicators of potential competition. Findings also supported the predictions of our hump-shaped oviposition regulation (HSR) model, with attraction to conspecific eggs at low-medium densities and switching to repellence at high egg densities. This oviposition behavior is mediated by DA that was identified from surface extracts of both eggs and first-instar larvae. Isovaleric acid was also found in extracts of both stages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cutaneous leishmaniosis (CL) is the most common form of leishmaniasis.CL caused by L. major and L. tropica is endemic in 17 provinces of Iran. This study was carried out to elucidate situation of CL in Ardabil province and to predict distribution of Phlebotomus papatasi and Phlebotomus sergenti (Diptera: Psychodidae) as vectors of CL in the region. In this cross-sectional study, data on CL patients were collected from local health centers of Ardabil province, Iran during 2006-2018 to establish a geodatabase using ArcGIS10.3. A total of 20 CL cases were selected randomly and skin samples were collected and analyzed by PCR method. MaxEnt 3.3.3 model was used to determine ecologically suitable niches for the main vectors. A total, 309 CL human cases were reported and the highest incidence rate of disease was occurred in Bilasavar (37/100,000) and Germi (35/100,000). A total of 2,794 sand flies were collected during May to October 2018. The environmentally suitable habitats for P. papatasi and P. sergenti were predicted to be present in northern and central areas of Ardabil province. The most variable that contributed ratio in the modeling were Isothermality and slope factors. Ardabil province is possibly an endemic are for CL. The presence of P. papatasi and P. sergenti justifies local transmission while the vectors of CL are existing in the northern and central areas of the province. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Leishmania donovani-induced and sand fly-transmitted leishmaniasis is a growing health problem in Sri Lanka. Limited knowledge on biological and behavioral characteristics of probable vector Phlebotomus argentipes hinders disease control. Here, insecticide susceptibility patterns of P. argentipes were investigated with exploration of probable underlying resistance mechanisms. Methods: Adult sand flies were collected using standard cattle baited net traps and CDC light traps from selected sites in four districts. Adult F1 progeny of P. argentipes were exposed to different concentrations of DDT, malathion, deltamethrin and propoxur using WHO susceptibility bioassay kits. Post-1-h knockdown and post-24-h mortality were recorded and analyzed. Metabolic enzyme activity and the sensitivity of the acetylcholinesterase target-site were determined by biochemical assays using wild-caught flies. Extracted fly DNA samples were tested for the presence of knockdown-resistance (kdr) type mutations. Results: The LC100 values for DDT, malathion, propoxur and deltamethrin were 0.8–1.5%, 0.9–2.0%, 0.017–0.03% and 0.007% respectively. Insecticide-susceptibility levels were higher than the discriminating dosages established for Aedes mosquitoes, except for malathion. The lowest susceptibility levels (except for deltamethrin) were detected in the Mamadala population, whereas the highest levels were detected in the Mirigama population. The percentage of knocked-down sand flies was < 75% at any tested concentration, including those, which exhibited 100% mortality after 24 h. Elevated activity levels of glutathione S-transferase (3%, 7%, 12.5% and 14%) and esterase (2%, 5%, 5.5% and 6.5%) were detected in flies that originated from Mirigama, Pannala, Thalawa and Mamadala respectively, while monooxygenase quantities remained below the cut-off level. Ten to 34.5% of flies were heterozygous for acetylcholinesterases target-site insensitivity, associated with organophosphate and carbamate resistance. Pyrethroid-resistance-associated L1014F kdr-type mutation in the voltage gated sodium channel gene was detected in 30/53 flies. Conclusions: Populations of P. argentipes in Sri Lanka are largely susceptible to common insecticides, except for malathion (used extensively in the past for malaria control). Their insecticide susceptibility appears negatively associated with past malaria endemicity of the study sites, with signs of early insecticide tolerance. Presence of insecticide target site insensitivity in a notable proportion of flies and enhanced insecticide metabolizing enzyme activities imply potential future challenges for leishmaniasis control, with a call for urgent proactive measures for its containment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: During blood feeding, sand flies inoculate salivary proteins that interact with the host haemostatic system. The blocking of biogenic amines such as serotonin and histamine helps to limit vasodilatation and clot formation, and thus enables the insect to finish the blood-feeding process. In sand flies, an amine-binding ability is known only for the yellow-related proteins of Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia vectors, but not yet for members of the genus Sergentomyia. Methods: The ability of Phlebotomus argentipes and Sergentomyia schwetzi recombinant yellow-related salivary proteins to bind histamine and serotonin was measured by microscale thermophoresis. Both sand fly species were also fed through a chicken-skin membrane on blood mixed with histamine or serotonin in order to check the effects of biogenic amines on sand fly fitness. Additionally, fecundity and mortality were compared in two groups of P. argentipes females fed on repeatedly-bitten and naive hamsters, respectively. Results: The P. argentipes recombinant yellow-related protein PagSP04 showed high binding affinity to serotonin and low affinity to histamine. No binding activity was detected for two yellow-related proteins of S. schwetzi. Elevated concentrations of serotonin significantly reduced the amount of eggs laid by P. argentipes when compared to the control. The fecundity of S. schwetzi and the mortality of both sand fly species were not impaired after the experimental membrane feeding. Additionally, there were no differences in oviposition or mortality between P. argentipes females fed on immunized or naive hamsters. Conclusions: Our results suggest that in natural conditions sand flies are able to cope with biogenic amines or anti-saliva antibodies without any influence on their fitness. The serotonin binding by salivary yellow-related proteins may play an important role in Phlebotomus species feeding on mammalian hosts, but not in S. schwetzi, which is adapted to reptiles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phlebotomine sand flies are the only known vectors of Leishmania spp. protozoan which causes leishmaniasis in 98 countries. In Spain, 11 sand fly species are described, but only Phlebotomus perniciosus and Phlebotomus ariasi are proven vectors of the disease. On the other hand, Sergentomyia minuta is one of the most abundant and ubiquitous sand flies in this territory, although scarce information is available about this species. Sand flies from this genus are known for their preference to feed on cold‐blooded animals and are traditionally involved in the transmission of reptile Leishmania. However, studies have suggested that Sergentomyia spp. could be implicated in the transmission of human pathogenic Leishmania. This study analyses blood meal preferences and Leishmania sp. infection of S. minuta sand flies from the largest human leishmaniasis outbreak in Europe. Sand flies were collected during entomological surveillance carries out from 2012 to 2017 in the active season of these dipterans, from May to October. Molecular detection of Leishmania spp. showed 68 positive specimens of S. minuta out of 377 (18%). The analysis of blood meal preferences by amplification of 359 bp fragment of cytochrome b gene revealed that blood preference of S. minuta is not only limited to reptiles, but they also feed on mammals, including humans. Results suggest the presence of a Leishmania sp., related to Leishmania tarentolae, cycle in S. minuta from the studied area. Although there is no evidence about its incrimination in the L. infantum transmission more investigation is needed to elucidate the intravectorial cycle of Leishmania spp. in S. minuta sand flies, their feeding behaviour and their potential contribution in Leishmania spp. epidemiology in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) remains a public health problem in the world, particularly in tropical and sub‐tropical countries. This study aimed to determine the hotspots of CL in Kerman Province of Iran and model their potential for the establishment of new disease foci. All documents related to studies conducted in Kerman Province on CL published between 1978 and 2017 were retrieved and categorized. Spatial distributions of the vector, reservoir and human infection of CL were mapped. MaxEnt ecological model was used to predict the environmental suitability of the vector and reservoir(s) of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ZCL). The most hazardous sites with the potential for the establishment of new disease foci were determined for field operations. Statistics of new cases of CL was obtained from the Center for Disease Control (CDC) of the ministry of health for the period 2011–2016. A total of 6,056 cases of CL were recorded, while we found a decreasing pattern in the incidence of CL from 46.48 per 100,000 inhabitants to 22.97. The best ecological niches for Phlebotomus papatasi are located in the central, western, northwest and southwest regions of the province. Also, environmental suitability for the reservoirs was highest in the central, southern and southwestern regions. The model predicted the gerbils can be present in some foci of anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL). However, this result should be confirmed through a precise field study, and if validated, plans should be made to prevent the emergence of new foci of ZCL in the risk areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vertical transmission of Leishmania infantum was demonstrated in domestic mice captured close to the home of a patient with leishmaniasis. Leishmania infantum DNA was detected in 88.9% of synanthropic Mus musculus adult rodents and 29.2% of their unborn foetuses. Mother‐to‐infant transmission was observed in all females whose gestational stage was sufficiently advanced to allow foetal analysis (foetal length 2–2.5 cm). The infection rate in foetal samples ranged from 11.1% to 50.0%, with parasite loads of up to 6,481 parasites/5 mg tissue. A low density of Phlebotomus perniciosus was also found (0.2 specimen/CDC trap). Six infected mice captured in March were only 1.5 months old and could thus not have had contact with the vector. Vertical transmission thus appears to play a greater role in the spread of leishmaniasis than previously thought, particularly since rodents are natural hosts for the parasite and are prolific in nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cutaneous leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by the parasite Leishmania and transmitted by sandflies. It has become a major health problem in many tropical and subtropical countries, especially in regions of conflict and political instability. Currently, there are only limited drug treatments and no available licensed vaccine; thus, the need for more therapeutic interventions remains urgent. Previously, a DNA vaccine encoding a 15 kDa sandfly (Phlebotomus papatasi) salivary protein (PpSP15) and recombinant nonpathogenic Leishmania tarentolae secreting PpSP15 have been shown to induce protective immunity against Leishmania major in mice, demonstrating that PpSP15 is a promising vaccine candidate. In this study, we developed a fermentation process in yeast with a yield of ~1g PpSP15/L and a scalable purification process consisting of only 2 chromatographic purification steps with high binding capacity for PpSP15, suggesting that PpSP15 can be produced economically. The biophysical/biochemical analysis of the purified PpSP15 indicated that the protein was of high purity (>97%) and conformationally stable between pH 4.4 and 9.0. More importantly, the recombinant protein had a defined structure similar to that of the related PdSP15 from Phlebotomus duboscqi , implying the suitability of the yeast expression system for producing a correctly folded PpSP15. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To determine the diversity of sand flies in different biotopes of mountainous and plain areas of Bam County as the most infected focus of anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in southeast Iran, and synanthropic index of Phlebotomus sergenti Parrot, and Phlebotomus papatasi Scopoli as the main vectors of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Iran. Methods: Sand flies were captured once a month using sticky traps in domestic, peri-domestic, agricultural, and sylvatic biotopes in the plain and mountainous areas. Alpha diversity indices, including richness, evenness, Shannon-Wiener; beta diversity indices (Jaccard's and Sorensen's similarity indices) and synanthropic index were calculated. Results: A total of 2 664 specimens of 9 sand fly species were collected from mountainous (47%) and plain (53%) areas. Species richness, species evenness, and Shannon-Wiener indices were obtained as 9, 0.637, and 1.399, respectively in the mountainous area. Phlebotomus sergenti and Phlebotomus papatasi were constant species with the synanthropic index of -18.463 and -29.412, respectively. In addition, species richness, species evenness, and Shannon-Wiener indices were 4, 0.690, and 0.956, respectively in the plain area. Phlebotomus sergenti and Phlebotomus papatasi were dominant species with the synanthropic index of +9.695 and +36.207, respectively. Similarity indices were low among different biotopes of plain and mountainous areas. Conclusions: A basic knowledge about the diversity of sand flies in various biotopes is essential to design sound control programs. Biodiversity and synanthropic indices of sand flies are different in plain and mountainous areas due to the difference in biotic and abiotic factors between the two areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leishmaniasis is a chronic inflammatory disease caused by several species of the parasite Leishmania that is transmitted by insects of the genus Phlebotomus spp. or Lutzomyia spp. This disease can affect skin, mucous membranes and viscera being classified as cutaneous, mucocutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, depending on the spectrum of clinical manifestations. Diagnosis can be achieved through biopsy, microscopical analysis, Montenegro intradermoreaction and/or ELISA. The dentist plays an important role in the diagnosis of this disease due to frequent involvement of oral mucosa. This article reports two clinical cases of leishmaniasis with oral mucosa involvement, their diagnosis workup and treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Vector-borne diseases (VBD) are of growing global importance. Sand flies are potential vectors for phleboviruses (family Phenuiviridae) including Toscana virus (TOSV), Sicilian virus, Sandfly fever, Naples virus, and Leishmania parasites in Europe. To date, only two phlebotomine species have been recorded for Germany: Phlebotomus perniciosus and Phlebotomus mascittii. This study updates the distribution and abundance of the two occurring species. Methods: An entomological field study was carried out during 2015–2018 to assess the abundance of sand flies in Southwest Germany within the federal states Baden-Wuerttemberg (BW) and Rhineland-Palatinate (RLP). A total of 176 collection sites were examined using CDC light traps. Results: A total of 149 individuals of P. mascittii were collected. During 2015–2018, P. mascittii was found at all sites known positive from previous studies and was detected at 15 additional sites previously unknown for the presence of sand flies. Although the environment has changed considerably in 30 years, no significant difference in sand fly dynamics and distribution was found. Phlebotomus perniciosus has only been trapped once since 2001. Conclusions: This study showed that sand flies occur in different areas in Southern Germany where they had not been recorded previously. Therefore, it can be assumed that they are more widespread than expected. In addition, sand flies could be found over several years at the same trapping sites, indicating population stability. This supports the need for continued surveillance of possible vector populations and urgent clarification of the vector competence of P. mascittii. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In endemic areas of zoonotic leishmaniosis caused by L. infantum, early detection of Leishmania infection in dogs is essential to control the dissemination of the parasite to humans. The aim of this study was to evaluate the serological and/or molecular diagnostic performance of minimally and non-invasive samples (conjunctiva cells (CS) and peripheral blood (PB)) for monitoring Leishmania infection/exposure to Phlebotomus perniciosus salivary antigens in dogs at the beginning and the end of sand fly seasonal activity (May and October, respectively) and to assess associated risks factors. Methods: A total of 208 sheltered dogs from endemic areas of leishmaniosis were screened. Leishmania DNA detection in PB on filter paper and CS was performed by nested-PCR (nPCR), while the detection of anti-Leishmania antibodies was performed using IFAT and ELISA. The exposure to P. perniciosus salivary antigens (SGH, rSP01 and rSP03B + rSP01) was measured by ELISA. Results: Ninety-seven (46.6%) and 116 (55.8%) of the 208 dogs were positive to Leishmania antibodies or DNA by at least one test at the beginning and end of the sand fly season, respectively. IFAT and ELISA presented a substantial agreement in the serodiagnosis of leishmaniosis. Discrepant PB nPCR results were obtained between sampling points. Leishmania DNA was detected in CS of 72 dogs at the end of the phlebotomine season. The presence of antibodies to the parasite measured by ELISA was significantly higher in dogs presenting clinical signs compatible with leishmaniosis at both sampling points. Phlebotomus perniciosus salivary antibodies were detected in 179 (86.1%) and 198 (95.2%) of the screened dogs at the beginning and end of the phlebotomine season, respectively. Conclusions: The association between ELISA positivity and clinical signs suggests its usefulness to confirm a clinical suspicion. CS nPCR seems to be an effective and non-invasive method for assessing early exposure to the parasite. PB nPCR should not be used as the sole diagnostic tool to monitor Leishmania infection. The correlation between the levels of antibodies to P. perniciosus saliva and Leishmania antibodies suggests the use of a humoral response to sand fly salivary antigens as biomarkers of L. infantum infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Former studies demonstrated quick selection of paromomycin resistance for Leishmania infantum and Leishmania donovani accompanied by increased fitness. The present study aimed to interpret these findings in an epidemiological context by comparing infection of WT and experimentally derived paromomycin-resistant strains in the sand fly vector.Methods: Depending on the Leishmania species, Lutzomyia longipalpis and Phlebotomus perniciosus or Phlebotomus argentipes sand flies were artificially infected with procyclic promastigotes of WT and paromomycin-resistant L. infantum (MHOM/FR/96/LEM3323-cl4) or L. donovani (MHOM/NP/03/BPK275/0-cl18). The infection rate and gut/stomodeal valve colonization were determined to monitor parasite phenotypic behaviour within the vector. The impact of the previously described gain of fitness in the vertebrate host on infectivity for the vector was assessed by feeding L. longipalpis on Syrian golden hamsters heavily infected with either WT or paromomycin-resistant parasites.Results: WT and paromomycin-resistant Leishmania of both species behaved similarly in terms of infection and parasite location within the studied sand fly species. Blood feeding on infected hamsters did not reveal differences in acquisition of WT and paromomycin-resistant parasites, despite the higher organ burdens observed for the paromomycin-resistant strain. Strains remained resistant after passage in the vector.Conclusions: Although paromomycin-resistant parasites show an increased parasite fitness in vitro and in laboratory rodents, the intrinsic infection potential of paromomycin-resistant parasites remains unaltered in the sand fly. Of importance is the fact that paromomycin-resistant Leishmania are able to complete development in the natural vectors and produce stomodeal infection with metacyclic forms, which clearly suggests their potential to spread and circulate in nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A few data are related to the anthropophily of Malagasy Phlebotomine sandflies. Prior studies focussed mainly to inventories and description of new species. Our goal was to emphasize the anthropophily of Malagasy Phlebotomine sandflies. We worked in the Makira region, using two simultaneous methods: human landing catches (HLC) and CDC light traps. We collected sandflies in three rural communities adjacent to the Makira Natural Park. In each community, three different biotopes were sampled: within community settlements; at the edge of forest, typically in agricultural land; and within the forest. We collected 61 sandflies belonging to two new species presently described: Phlebotomus artemievi sp. nov. and Sergentomyia maroantsetraensis sp. nov. These sandflies were caught exclusively in the forest edge biotope. None were captured within communities or within forests. HLC provided 97% of the collected sandflies, corresponding to a human-biting rate of 15 females per human per night. CDC provided only two females. Ph. artemievi sp. nov. was predominantly captured by HLC and appears to be highly anthropophilic. Here, we update the behavioural ecology of sandflies and describe two new species. Further research is required to understand their vector competence and their ability to transmit arboviruses and other pathogens such as Leishmania. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The field-based studies on sand flies are not adequate to uncover information required for the control of the leishmaniasis through reduction of vector populations. Therefore, establishment and maintenance of laboratory colonies of sand flies is an essential step in leishmaniasis research. In the current study, a colony of P. argentipes was established from wild-caught sand flies following standard procedures from the published literature. Morphological measurements of laboratory-reared and wild-caught individual sand flies were compared to assess the difference between two groups. The colony was successfully established under confined laboratory conditions. The comparison of morphometric parameters revealed that the laboratory-reared sand flies are significantly larger than those caught from wild, suggesting a possibility of increased fitness of sand flies under favorable environmental conditions which may cause higher prevalence in the disease. The current study reports the first successful attempt in colonizing sand flies under laboratory conditions. However, the colony data suggest that the conditions extracted from the published literature need to be optimized to suit local settings in order to achieve maximum population sizes within the available amount of resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Phlebotomus (Larroussius) perniciosus and Canis familiaris are respectively the only confirmed vector and reservoir for the transmission of Leishmania (L.) infantum MON-1 in Tunisia. However, the vector and reservoir hosts of the two other zymodemes, MON-24 and MON-80, are still unknown. The aim of this study was to analyze the L. infantum life cycle in a Tunisian leishmaniasis focus. For this purpose, we have focused on: i) the detection, quantification and identification of Leishmania among this sand fly population, and ii) the analysis of the blood meal preferences of Larroussius (Lar.) subgenus sand flies to identify the potential reservoirs. Methodology and findings: A total of 3,831 sand flies were collected in seven locations from the center of Tunisia affected by human visceral leishmaniasis. The collected sand flies belonged to two genus Phlebotomus (Ph.) (five species) and Sergentomyia (four species). From the collected 1,029 Lar. subgenus female sand flies, 8.26% was positive to Leishmania by ITS1 nested PCR. Three Leishmania spp. were identified: L. infantum 28% (24/85), L. killicki 13% (11/85), and L. major 22% (19/85). To identify the blood meal sources in Ph. Lar. subgenus sand flies, engorged females were analyzed by PCR-sequencing targeting the vertebrate cytochrome b gene. Among the 177 analyzed blood-fed females, 169 samples were positive. Sequencing results showed seven blood sources: cattle, human, sheep, chicken, goat, donkey, and turkey. In addition, mixed blood meals were detected in twelve cases. Leishmania DNA was found in 21 engorged females, with a wide range of blood meal sources: cattle, chicken, goat, chicken/cattle, chicken/sheep, chicken/turkey and human/cattle. The parasite load was quantified in fed and unfed infected sand flies using a real time PCR targeting kinetoplast DNA. The average parasite load was 1,174 parasites/reaction and 90 parasites/reaction in unfed and fed flies, respectively. Conclusion: Our results support the role of Ph. longicuspis, Ph. perfiliewi, and Ph. perniciosus in L. infantum transmission. Furthermore, these species could be involved in L. major and L. killicki life cycles. The combination of the parasite detection and the blood meal analysis in this study highlights the incrimination of the identified vertebrate in Leishmania transmission. In addition, we quantify for the first time the parasite load in naturally infected sand flies caught in Tunisia. These findings are relevant for a better understanding of L. infantum transmission cycle in the country. Further investigations and control measures are needed to manage L. infantum transmission and its spreading. Author summary: Leishmania (L.) infantum is responsible for both visceral leishmaniasis and sporadic cutaneous leishmaniasis in Tunisia. The isoenzymatic typing of this taxon revealed three zymodemes and only one (L. infantum MON-1) presents the transmission cycle elucidated. In this study, we conducted an entomological survey using CDC light traps in central Tunisia wherein the three zymodemes of L. infantum coexist, to investigate the presence of L. infantum, to quantify the parasite load, and to analyze the blood meal sources in infected sand flies belonging to Larroussius (Lar.) subgenus. Our results demonstrate the role of Ph. Lar. species in L. infantum transmission and their potential role in L. major and L. killicki life cycles. The high parasite load observed in Ph. perfiliewi underline its incrimination in L. infantum transmission. Also, blood meal analysis showed that Lar. subgenus sand flies fed on cattle, goat, sheep, chicken, and human. Thus, in the light of the present results, further studies should be performed for a better understanding of L. infantum transmission cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acoustic communication in the form of courtship and mating songs are often involved in reproductive isolation between species of Diptera, such as Drosophila, mosquitoes and sand flies. The patterns of courtship songs in New World sand fly species evolve quickly under sexual selection; and therefore, represent an important trait that can be used as a marker to study the evolution of species complexes and may aid identification of sibling species with a complex. The ability to identify vector species within species complexes is of critical importance for effective and efficient vector control programs. Species-specific song patterns seems to contribute to reproductive isolation in New World sand fly species, suggesting that auditory communication signals may be widespread among these important vectors of leishmaniasis. The main goal of the present study was to characterize the copulatory courtship song of Phlebotomus argentipes, an important vector of visceral leishmaniasis in the Old World. Ph. argentipes males produce acoustic signals during copulation and two types of songs were observed. The one we called primary song is a 'pulse song' with similar length and amplitude to the previously observed 'P1' pattern recorded in Brazilian populations of Lu. longipalpis s.l. The secondary song has 'sine song' characteristics and is quite different from any song produced by New World species. The discovery of this copulation courtship songs in Ph. argentipes supports the possibility that acoustic communication in sandflies might be more widespread than previously thought, including Old World species. Our results highlight the importance of further research on acoustic communication in the Ph. argentipes species complex and other Old World vectors of leishmaniasis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a major public health concern in Ethiopia. However, knowledge about the complex zoonotic transmission cycle is limited, hampering implementation of control strategies. We explored the feeding behavior and activity of the vector (Phlebotomus pedifer) and studied the role of livestock in CL transmission in southwestern Ethiopia. Methods: Blood meal origins of engorged sand flies were determined by sequencing host DNA. A host choice experiment was performed to assess the feeding preference of P. pedifer when humans and hyraxes are equally accessible. Ear and nose biopsies from livestock were screened for the presence of Leishmania parasites. Sand flies were captured indoor and outdoor with human landing catches and CDC light traps to determine at which time and where P. pedifer is mostly active. Principal findings: A total of 180 P. pedifer sand flies were found to bite hosts of 12 genera. Humans were the predominant blood meal source indoors (65.9%, p < 0.001), while no significant differences were determined outdoors and in caves. In caves, hyraxes were represented in blood meals equally as humans (45.5% and 42.4%, respectively), but the host choice experiment revealed that sand flies have a significant preference for feeding on hyraxes (p = 0.009). Only a single goat nose biopsy from 412 animal samples was found with Leishmania RNA. We found that P. pedifer is predominantly endophagic (p = 0.003), but occurs both indoors and outdoors. A substantial number of sand flies was active in the early evening, which increased over time reaching its maximum around midnight. Conclusion: In contrast to earlier suggestions of exclusive zoonotic Leishmania transmission, we propose that there is also human-to-human transmission of CL in southwestern Ethiopia. Livestock does not play a role in CL transmission and combined indoor and outdoor vector control measures at night are required for efficient vector control. Author summary: Cutaneous leishmaniasis is a major public health problem in Ethiopia. It is mainly caused by Leishmania aethiopica protozoa that are transmitted when female sand flies take a blood meal. Hyraxes are assigned as the reservoirs of the infection, because many were found infected with Leishmania. There is very limited knowledge about the behavior of sand flies and other potential reservoir hosts of the infection. However, this information is a prerequisite for disease control, which is currently hampered. In this study, we found that humans are an important source of infection and that the role of hyraxes in disease transmission needs further investigation to decide whether they should be included in control programs. Livestock appears not play a role in transmission, even though sand flies like to feed on them. We also show that sand flies are active indoors and outdoors, but have a preference for feeding inside human dwellings and that they are mostly active around midnight. Overall, we conclude that disease prevention and control should emphasize on human protection by applying vector control indoors, at night. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the presence of Leishmania DNA and blood feeding sources in phlebotomine sand fly species commonly present in Sicily were investigated. A total of 1,866 female sand flies including 176 blood fed specimens were sampled over two seasons in five selected sites in Sicily (southern Italy). Sergentomyia minuta (n = 1,264) and Phlebotomus perniciousus (n = 594) were the most abundant species at all the sites, while three other species from the genus Phlebotomus (i.e., P. sergenti n = 4, P. perfiliewi n = 3 and P. neglectus n = 1) were only sporadically captured. Twenty-eight out of the 1,866 (1.5%) sand flies tested positive for Leishmania spp. Leishmania tarentolae DNA was identified in 26 specimens of S. minuta, while the DNA of Leishmania donovani complex was detected in a single specimen each of S. minuta and P. perniciosus. Interestingly, seven S. minuta specimens (0.4%) tested positive for reptilian Trypanosoma sp. Blood sources were successfully identified in 108 out of 176 blood fed females. Twenty-seven out of 82 blood sources identified in fed females of P. perniciosus were represented by blood of wild rabbit, S. minuta mainly fed on humans (16/25), while the sole P. sergenti fed specimen took a blood meal on rat. Other vertebrate hosts including horse, goat, pig, dog, chicken, cow, cat and donkey were recognized as blood sources for P. perniciosus and S. minuta, and, surprisingly, no reptilian blood was identified in blood-fed S. minuta specimens. Results of this study agree with the well-known role of P. perniciosus as vector of L. infantum in the western Mediterranean; also, vector feeding preferences herein described support the hypothesis on the involvement of lagomorphs as sylvatic reservoirs of Leishmania. The detection of L. donovani complex in S. minuta, together with the anthropophilic feeding-behaviour herein observed, warrants further research to clarify the capacity of this species in the transmission of pathogens to humans and other animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phlebotomine sand flies are small tropical insects that have been implicated as vectors of several disease agents, including those responsible for the various forms of leishmaniasis. A study to determine the occurrence and monthly dynamics of phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Phlebotominae) was conducted in three Local Government Areas (Wamakko, Sokoto South and Kware) of Sokoto State, Nigeria between May-November, 2016. A total of 1260 flies were collected using modified sticky traps placed in the various biotope types (refuse dumps and sewage tanks). Two sand fly genera Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia were encountered. It was also observed that males account for 860(68.3%) while the total number of female specimens was 400(31.7%). More flies were captured in Wamakko LGA of the State with a total number of 757 samples (60.1%), followed by Sokoto South LGA with a total number of 503(39.9%). Refuse dumps harboured 1,149 flies (91.2%) more than sewage tanks with a total number of 111(8.8%). No flies were captured in Kware LGA. Sand flies were more abundant in the peak rainy season of August and September and less or absent in the dry months. It was observed that rainfall and relative humidity were essential meteorological factors that determined the occurrence of sand flies in the study area. This study confirmed the occurrence of phlebotomine sand flies and the possibility of Leishmania transmission in the study-area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species of Biskratrombium (Trombidiformes: Microtrombidiidae), B. persicumn. sp. is described and illustrated, from Fars province, southern Iran. Biskratrombium persicum larvae are ectoparasites of the adults of Phlebotomus (Paraphlebotomus) alexandri (Sinton, 1928), P. (Phlebotomus) papatasi (Scopoli, 1786) and Sergentomyia (Sergentomyia) mervynae (Pringle, 1953) (Diptera: Psychodidae). Fars province is considered as a significant focus of leishmaniasis, a disease which is mostly associated with rural areas; these areas offer favorable habitats to the phlebotomine sandflies due to limited sanitation. This study was performed to identify the natural enemies of sandflies (as leishmania disease vectors) in this region. In this research, B. persicum larvae were removed from their sandfly hosts collected from foci of leishmaniasis (e.g., sheep and goat keeping locations) using sticky traps. Also, the abundance of sandflies infested with the parasitic mite was calculated. Some morphological abnormalities in the species are noted and world parasitengone mites parasitizing phlebotomine sandflies are reviewed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In domestic and per domestic area, insecticides such as DDT, malathion, fenitrothion, propoxur and, more recently, synthetic pyrethroids such as deltamethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin, have been successfully used to control sand flies in many countries. The present study reports the results of time-mortality bioassay to DDT 4%, lambdacyhalothrin 0.05%, permethrin 0.75%, cyfluthrin 0.15% and deltamethrin 0.05% in recently colonized Phlebotomus papatasi populations in Iran. Methods: The insecticide susceptibility status of P. papatasi laboratory population was assessed during 2016-2017, following the standard WHO technique for mosquito (WHO, 2013) based on diagnostic dose. Sand flies collected from rural area of Badrood (Matin Abad), Natanz County, Esfahan Province, using aspirator. Results: Susceptibility test to DDT and pyrethroids was assessed on 3534 laboratory-reared P. papatasi (1746 females and 1788 males). The LT50 and LT90 values were measured using probit analysis and regression lines. The test results against males of P. papatasi revealed that LT50 values to DDT 4%, Permethrin 0.75%, Deltamethrin 0.05%, Cyfluthrin 0.15% and Lambdacyhalothrin 0.05% were 439.28, 108.90, 97.75, 5.00 and 57.84 seconds. The figures for females were 641.62, 136.15, 146.44, 8.71 and 72.69 seconds, respectively. Conclusion: According to presented results, the reared population of sand flies collected from a hyper-endemic region of Esfahan Province is still susceptible to prethroids and Resistance candidate to DDT 4%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Leishmaniasis diseases are known to be one of the most important public health problems in World and Iran. Visceral leishmaniasis is considered to be the most serious form and transmitted by sand flies species. The aim of this study was to investigate the dynamic activities of sandflies in northwestern Iran. Methods: This crass-sectional study was conducted from April to December 2018 in Meshkinshahr County, Ardabil Province. Sticky traps have been used to collect sand flies. They are stored in 70% alcohol and finally identified using valid keys. The aspects of the synoptic information were inquired from the Meshkin Shahr weather department and results analyzed for SPSS24. Results: Totally 259 sandflies were collected during study period. From collected samples 78.7% were male and 21.3% female. There were 8 different species. Phlebotomus kandelakii was the most prevalent one (30.8%). The average temperature, relative humidity, and average wind speed was 13.5 °C, 84%, and 2 meters per hour on the onset of sandflies' activity, respectively. These values were 18.3 °C, 85% and 1.5 meters per hour at the peak of their activity and 16 °C, 62% and 5 meters per hour at the final stage of their activity. Sand flies had one peak in July which is strongly influenced by temperature and humidity conditions. Two species of Ph. kandelakii and Phlebotomus perfilewi transcaucasicus, had the highest activity in this endemic area. Conclusion: The results of current study will provide a guideline for control of diseases in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis are common in some areas of Iran and consider as health problems. Phlebotomus alexandri has been incriminated as a suspected vector for the both form of leishmaniasis. Methods: This study was carried out in 4 western provinces of Iran. Sand flies were collected using sticky traps and light traps from indoor and outdoor resting places. Nested PCR was employed to detect Leishmania parasites among collected sand flies. Results: Seven hundred and twenty two P. alexandri females were collected and pooled in 179 batches. Results of nested PCR showed, out of 9 samples from East Azerbaijan Province, only one sample was infected by Leishmania infantum. Of 34 individual and pooled samples from Kermanshah Province, only one pooled sample was infected with Leishmania major and among 30 individual and pooled samples in Fars Province, five specimens were infected by L. major, L. infantum, Leishmania donovani and Leishmania tropica. Furthermore, out of 108 individual and pooled samples from Khuzestan Province, 10 samples showed infection with L. major and L. infantum. Conclusion: The results of this study showed that P. alexandri is more active in hot zones than in moderate zones and this species may be considered as a permissive species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a deadly disease transmitted by the sand fly Phlebotomus argentipes on the Indian subcontinent, with a promising means of vector control being orally treating cattle with fipronil-based drugs. While prior research investigating the dynamic relationship between timing of fipronil-based control schemes and the seasonality of sand flies provides insights into potential of treatment on a large scale, ecological uncertainties remain. We investigated how uncertainties associated with sand fly ecology might affect our ability to assess efficacy of fipronil-based control schemes. To do this, we used a previously-described, individual-based, stochastic sand fly model to quantify how uncertainties associated with 1) the percentage of female sand flies taking blood meals from cattle, and 2) the percentage of female sand flies ovipositing in organic matter containing feces from treated cattle might impact the efficacy of fipronil-based sand fly control schemes. Principal findings: Assuming no prior knowledge of sand fly blood meal and oviposition sites, the probabilities of achieving effective sand fly population reduction with treatments performed 3, 6 and 12 times per year were ≈5–22%, ≈27–36%, and ≈46–54%, respectively. Assuming ≥50% of sand flies feed on cattle, probabilities of achieving efficacious control increased to ≈8–31%, ≈15–42%, and ≈52–65%. Assuming also that ≥50% of sand flies oviposit in cattle feces, the above probabilities increased further to ≈14–53%, ≈31–81%, and ≈89–97%. Conclusions: Our assessments of the efficacy of fipronil-based cattle treatments in controlling sand fly populations depend on our assumptions regarding key aspects of sand fly ecology. Assessments are most sensitive to assumptions concerning the percentage of sand flies ovipositing in feces of treated cattle, thus emphasizing the importance of identifying sand fly oviposition sites. Our results place the evaluation of fipronil-based cattle treatment within a broader ecological context, which could aid in the planning and execution of a largescale field trial. Author summary: Visceral leishmaniasis is a virulent disease transmitted to man by phlebotomine sand flies. Prior research has suggested the potential for fipronil-based drugs administered orally to cattle to successfully control adult sand flies feeding on cattle blood and larvae developing in cattle feces. However, field studies have yet to be conducted and uncertainties surrounding sand fly ecology may impact the success of treatment. We use an individual-based, stochastic model representing the sand fly life cycle, previously used to evaluate a number of potential fipronil-based sand fly control schemes, to investigate two of these uncertainties: 1) the percentage of sand flies feeding on cattle blood, 2) the percentage of sand flies laying eggs in cattle feces. Results indicate that changes in our assumptions regarding these two uncertainties have a significant impact on our estimates of the probable success of fipronil-based control schemes. Additionally, simulations suggest that the results are most sensitive to changes in the percentage of sand flies ovipositing in cattle feces. Hence, our results place the evaluation of fipronil-based cattle treatment within a broader ecological context and emphasize the need for novel approaches for determining the oviposition sites of sand flies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The kinetoplastid protozoan Leishmania spp. cause leishmaniasis, which clinically exhibit mainly as a cutaneous, mucocutanous or visceral form depending upon the parasite species in humans. The disease is widespread geographically, leading to 20 000 annual deaths. Here, leishmaniases in both humans and animals, reservoirs and sand fly vectors on the Caribbean islands are reviewed. Autochthonous human infections by Leishmania spp. were found in the Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe and Martinique as well as Trinidad and Tobago; canine infections were found in St. Kitts and Grenada; and equine infections were found in Puerto Rico. Imported human cases have been reported in Cuba. The parasites included Leishmania amazonensis , Le. martiniquensis and Le. waltoni. Possible sand fly vectors included Lutzomyia christophei , Lu. atroclavatus , Lu. cayennensis and Lu. flaviscutellata as well as Phlebotomus guadeloupensis. Reservoirs included rats, rice rats and mouse opossum. An updated study is warranted for the control and elimination of leishmaniasis in the region because some of the data are four decades old. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: In the last 12 years, 33 patients have been diagnosed as skin leishmaniasis by histopathologically in Erzurum and most of them have been observed especially in recent years. We have decided to investigate the reasons for this increase in incidence since it has not been encountered in our region before. We aimed to investigate the environmental conditions and epidemiological characteristics of Leishmanisis based on these 33 cases that were diagnosed histopathologically but not diagnosed clinically and microbiologically. Materials and Methods: Pathology reports of skin biopsies evaluated and processed in two different centers in Erzurum in the last 12 years were examined and the results were listed and statistics were made. Results: Many of the patients had come from regions that were not suitable for the Phlebotomus disease carrier. The mean age was higher than the other series. For these reasons, it was thought that travel to endemic regions might be effective. Conclusion: Changes in Leishmania species (such as L. major) in our country in recent years bring about changes in clinical and microbiological findings. For these reasons, especially in recent years, the number of biopsies increasing which sent to pathology departments due to nondiagnosed clinically and microbiologically. Therefore, the clinical findings should be well known to pathologists. We think that this issue should be handled with both histopathological and epidemiological features and should be examined in detail in case of a serious epidemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study provides updated information on the distribution of the phlebotomine sand fly species and their genetic characterization in Sardinia, a Mediterranean island where leishmaniasis is endemic. From April to November 2017, sand flies were trapped in five different capture sites using sticky traps and light traps as collection methods, operated nearby sheep, poultry, cat, and dog shelters. Phlebotomine specimens (n = 513) collected were morphologically and molecularly identified as Phlebotomus perniciosus (249/513, 48.5%), Phlebotomus perfiliewi (236/513; 46%), and Sergentomyia minuta (28/513, 5.5%). Sand flies were collected from the second half of May to October confirming the well-defined seasonal activity, which peaks in August in Sardinia. Overall, correlation analyses indicated a significant positive association between the monthly number of sand flies collected and the mean temperature (r = 0.88, rho = 0.87, and tau = 0.69, P < 0.05), while there was non-significant, moderately negative correlation between the monthly number of sand flies collected and the monthly mean relative humidity and wind (r = − 0.22, rho = 0.02, and tau = 0.04, P > 0.05). This study provides the first data on the molecular characterization of phlebotomine sand flies in this region and confirms the presence of three sand fly species. Molecular results suggest that the morphological features used for analysis represent synapomorphic-derived characters which are shared among descendant taxa and the common ancestor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) enzymes, in insects, have previously been implicated in resistance developed against DDT and other insecticides. The GST enzyme particularly sigma class have important physiological role in detoxification of lipid peroxidation by-products in insects. Phlebotomus argentipes has been intensely exposed to DDT over years due to Indoor Residual Spray (IRS) programme for Kala-azar elimination in Bihar, India. However, in P. argentipes, role of GSTs in DDT resistance have not been elucidated. Here, sigma class GST of P. argentipes (Parg-GSTσ) was successfully cloned, expressed and purified by affinity chromatography. The recombinant Parg-GSTσ was found to be highly active towards cumene hydroperoxide and 4-HNE having specific activity 92.47 & 203.92 µM/min/mg of protein, respectively and exhibited low activity towards universal substrate CDNB i.e., 8.75 µM/min/mg of protein. RT-PCR and immunoblot analysis showed at least 2 and 1.8 fold overexpression of Parg-GSTσ in the single exposed and non exposed DDT resistant P. argentipes as compared to susceptible, implicating Parg-GSTσ also involved in DDT resistance probably by imparting enhanced stress tolerance. The DDT, H2O2 and temperature induction assays demonstrated stress-dependent induction of Parg-GSTσ expression indicating its important role in oxidative stress redressal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Phlebotominae sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) are the vectors of leishmaniasis. There are different methods for sand fly collection with different performance. The purpose of the current study was to compare the effect of different traps for collection of Phlebotominae sand flies in three endemic leishmaniasis foci in North Khorasan Province, northeast of Iran. Methods: Sand flies were collected using seven different traps from three villages, three times each twenty days during peak periods of seasonal activity in 2016. Results: A total of 7253 sand flies were collected. The specimens belonged to19 species. Phlebotomus sergenti was the most predominant species in the study area. Light trap baited with Carbon dioxide (CLT) and sticky paper trap (SPT) caught 22.6% and 22.3% of sand flies respectively. Animal baited trap (ABT) and white Shannon trap (WST) caught significantly fewer sand flies than the other traps. The sex ratio was different by phlebotominae sand fly species and collection methods. The sex ratio was highest in SPT and lowest in black Shannon trap (BST). Species diversity and species richness in SPT were more than other traps. Conclusion: Our findings confirm that CLT and SPT are the most efficient sand fly collection methods. CLT is higher attractive for females and Phlebotomus genus and is an ideal method for monitoring the population of Phlebotomus genus during surveillance. SPT is an inexpensive, convenient and easy to be used to detect the presence of sand flies at low densities and provide a more realistic estimation of sand flies biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article, titled "Retraction: Kinetics of Antibody Response in BALB/c and C57BL/6 Mice Bitten by Phlebotomus papatasi," was retracted by the editors of PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases due to concerns raised about the reliability and integrity of the published results. Specifically, there were similarities observed in the results presented in Figures 3 and 4 that were not expected from independent data. The corresponding author provided underlying data, but mismatches were found between the data and their corresponding figure panels during editorial assessment. While some authors stood by the article's findings, others either did not respond or could not be reached. [Extracted from the article]

[Display omitted] • Leishmania tropica was detected three species of Phlebotomus by PCR. • Phlebotomus sergenti was the most parasite prevalent species. • P. papatasi and P. alexandri were also detected positive for L. tropica. • Parasite positive sand flies were collected from all sites throughout active season. • Multiple species might be acting as vector pointing towards complex transmission cycle. Cutaneous Leishmaniasis is endemic in tribal district Khyber for last more than one decade. The causative agent Leishmania tropica is known but sand fly species responsible for the transmission of disease still needs to be investigated. A total of 2647 Phlebotomus females belonging to 11 species were divided into 435 batches and subjected to PCR for detection of Leishmania in sand flies. A total of 50 batches belonging to three species i.e. Phlebotomus sergenti , Phlebotomus papatasi and Phlebotomus alexandri were detected positive for Leishmania tropica. Overall minimum infection rate was 1.89% (50/2647). Highest minimum infection rate of 2.11% (39/1710) was observed for Phlebotomus sergenti followed by 1.21% (8/661) for Phlebotomus paptasi and 1.82% (3/165) for Phlebotomus alexandri. Both blood fed (38%) and unfed (62%) sand flies were detected positive for the parasite DNA. Positive specimens were collected throughout the active season, from all collection sites of the study area. Detection of Leishmania parasite in multiple species of Phlebotomus indicates the possible role of these species as vector of disease in the tribal district Khyber of Pakistan. It also indicates the probable complex transmission cycle of the disease involving multiple vector species in the study area. Devising a control strategy by focusing on these vector species, may reduce the disease burden in the cutaneous leishmaniasis endemic tribal district Khyber. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Leishmania (Sauroleishmania) tarentolae is transmitted by reptile-biting sand flies of the genus Sergentomyia, but the role of Phlebotomus sand flies in circulation of this parasite is unknown. Here, we compared the development of L. (S.) tarentolae strains in three Phlebotomus species: P. papatasi, P. sergenti, and P. perniciosus. Laboratory-bred sand flies were membrane-fed on blood with parasite suspension and dissected on days 1 and 7 post blood meal. Parasites were measured on Giemsa-stained gut smears and five morphological forms were distinguished. In all parasite-vector combinations, promastigotes were found in Malpighian tubules, often in high numbers, which suggests that this tissue is a typical location for L. (S.) tarentolae development in sand flies. All three studied strains colonized the hindgut, but also migrated anteriorly to both parts of the midgut and colonized the stomodeal valve. Significant differences were demonstrated between sand fly species: highest infection rates, high parasite loads, and the most frequent anterior migration with colonization of the stomodeal valve were found in P. perniciosus, while all these parameters were lowest in P. sergenti. In conclusion, the peripylarian type of development was demonstrated for three L. (S.) tarentolae strains in three Phlebotomus sand flies. We suggest paying more attention to Phlebotomus species, particularly P. perniciosus and P. papatasi, as potential secondary vectors of Sauroleishmania.

Abstract Background Leishmaniasis in Serbia was an endemic disease, and is considered to be eradicated for more than 40 years. In the past decade sporadic cases of canine leishmaniasis started to emerge for the first time in Vojvodina Province (previously non-endemic region of Serbia). Reports of introduced, and later on autochthonous cases of leishmaniasis alerted the possibility of disease emergence. The aim of this study was to bridge more than a half a century wide gap in entomological surveillance of sand fly vectors in Vojvodina, as well as to verify the presence of the vector species that could support Leishmania spp. circulation. Results During the period 2013–2015, a total of 136 sand flies were collected from 48 of 80 surveyed locations. Four sand fly species of the genus Phlebotomus were detected: P. papatasi, P. perfiliewi, P. mascittii and P. neglectus. Detection of P. mascittii represents the first record of this species for the sand fly fauna in Vojvodina and in Serbia. All female specimens (n = 80) were tested for Leishmania spp. DNA, and three blood-fed P. papatasi specimens were positive (4%). One positive DNA sample was successfully amplified by ITS1 nPCR. The RFLP analysis of the resulting 350 bp fragment showed a typical pattern of L. infantum, and the ITS1 partial sequence blasted in GenBank confirmed 100% identity with L. infantum and L. donovani complex sequences. This result represents the first record of both Leishmania spp. and L. infantum DNA from sand flies in Vojvodina, and in Serbia. Conclusions Presence of autochthonous canine leishmaniasis cases, records of Phlebotomus (Larroussius) species proven vectors of L. infantum (P. perfiliewi and P. neglectus) and detection of L. infantum DNA from wild caught (non-competent) vectors, prove that L. infantum is present in Vojvodina and indicates a probable circulation in the region.

Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne disease with a broad global occurrence and an increasing number of recorded cases; however, it is still one of the world's most neglected diseases. We here provide climatic suitability maps generated by means of an ecological niche modelling approach for 32 Phlebotomus vector species with proven or suspected vector competence for five Leishmania pathogens occurring in Eurasia and Africa. A GIS-based spatial overlay analysis was then used to compare the distributional patterns of vectors and pathogens to help evaluate the vector species–pathogen relationship currently found in the literature. Based on this single factor of vector incrimination, that is, co-occurrence of both vector and pathogen, most of the pathogens occurred with at least one of the associated vector species. In the case of L. donovani, only a not yet confirmed vector species, P. rodhaini, could explain the occurrence of the pathogen in regions of Africa. Phlebotomus alexandri and P. longiductus on the other hand, proven vector species of L. donovani, do not seem to qualify as vectors for the pathogen. Their distribution is restricted to northern latitudes and does not match the pathogen's distribution, which lies in southern latitudes. Other more locally confined mismatches were discussed for each pathogen species. The comparative geographical GIS-overlay of vector species and pathogens functions as a first indication that testing and re-evaluation of some pathogen–vector relationships might be worthwhile to improve risk assessments of leishmaniasis.

Background: The incidence of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) has increased in the Southern region of Brazil in recent years, especially in the State of Paraná. New species have been suggested with potential to act as vector in VL endemic areas., Objectives: Identify the Leishmania species in sand fly specimens collected from 2016 to 2018 in the municipality of Itaperuçu, Vale do Ribeira, Paraná, Brazil., Methods: Light traps were used for collections and for the analysis of sand fly were used the multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methodology and subsequent sequencing., Findings: Among the collected specimens, 88.62% were attributed to the species Nyssomyia neivai, which were grouped into 176 pools. Three positive pools were detected: two with Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis and one with L. (Leishmania) infantum. The positivity rate for the parasite was 0.25% based on the presence of at least one infected insect in the pool., Main Conclusions: The detection of L. infantum in Ny. neivai draws attention due to its abundance and anthropophily in the State of Paraná. Moreover, this finding is considered as an alert and suggests that the vector competence of Ny. neivai and the criteria for its incrimination should be carried out, given its wide distribution in southern of Brazil.

The sand fly fauna and the usefulness of the DNA barcoding fragment of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene were accessed in a forest fragment in the municipality of Governador Newton Bello, state of Maranhão, Brazil. We performed entomological collections in three independent campaigns in May and October 2021, and January 2023. Sand flies were morphologically-identified and then DNA barcoded. Sequences were deposited and analyzed in the BOLD System Database, and various species delimitation algorithms, to assess whether DNA sequences merge into taxonomic units in accordance with nominal species. In total, 1,524 sand flies were collected, comprising 32 nominal species. Nyssomyia antunesi was the most abundant species (31.5 %), followed by Psychodopygus davisi (27 %). We reported for the first time in the state of Maranhão, the presence of Lutzomyia evangelistai, Lutzomyia sherlocki, Pressatia equatorialis, and Psathyromyia barrettoi. We amplified and analyzed 67 COI barcodes of 23 species, which were merged with conspecific sequences extracted from GenBank. The maximum intraspecific p distances ranged from 0.0 % to 14.74 %, while the distances to the nearest neighbor varied from 1.67 % to 13.64 %. The phylogenetic gene tree and species delimitation tools clustered sequences into well-supported clades/clusters for each nominal species, except for Pressatia choti/Pr. equatorialis, which have the lowest interspecific genetic distance (1.67 %). We sequenced for the first time COI barcodes of Brumptomyia brumpti, Evandromyia monstruosa, Micropygomyia rorotaensis, Micropygomyia pilosa, Pintomyia christenseni, Pintomyia pacae, Pr. equatorialis, Pa. barrettoi, and Psathyromyia hermanlenti, which will be useful for further molecular identification and classification proposals of Neotropical species. This study updated the current list of the sand fly fauna for the state of Maranhão to 97, and demonstrated that COI barcodes are useful for specific identification., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Understanding aspects related to the physiology and capacity of vectors is essential for effectively controlling vector-borne diseases. The sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis has great importance in medical entomology for disseminating Leishmania parasites, the causative agent of Leishmaniasis, one of the main neglected diseases listed by the World Health Organization (WHO). In this respect, it is necessary to evaluate the transmission potential of this species and the success of vector control interventions. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has been used to estimate the age of mosquitoes in different conditions (laboratory, semi-field, and conservation), taxonomic analysis, and infection detection. However, no studies are using NIRS for sand flies., Methods: In this study, we developed analytic models to estimate the age of L. longipalpis adults under laboratory conditions, identify their copulation state, and evaluate their gonotrophic cycle and diet., Results: Sand flies were classified with an accuracy of 58-82% in 3 age groups and 82-92% when separating them into young (<8 days) or old (>8 days) insects. The classification between mated and non-mated sandflies was 98-100% accurate, while the percentage of hits of females that had already passed the first gonotrophic cycle was only 59%., Conclusions: We consider the age and copula estimation results very promising, as they provide essential aspects of vector capacity assessment, which can be obtained quickly and at a lower cost with NIRS., (© 2024. The Author(s).)